Appendix:Affixes in Formosan languages

The following lists describe affixes in various Formosan languages.

The list of Budai Rukai affixes below is sourced from Chen (2006:199-203).

Prefixes

• a- 'become'
• ana- 'if'
• api- 'like', 'want'
• i- 'at', 'in'
• ki- 'to gather', 'to collect'
• ki- 'Dative Focus'
• ki- 'to dig
• ku- 'to remove'
• ku- 'Free Pronoun marker'
• ku- 'Past marker'
• la- 'Plural'
• lu- 'Future'
• ma- 'Stative Verb'
• ma- 'reciprocal'
• ma- 'dual (two people)'
• mu- 'to remove'
• mu- 'self-motion'
• muasaka- 'ordinal'
• nai- 'have done'
• ŋi- 'to move in certain direction'
• ŋi- '-self'
• ŋu- 'to ride'
• pa- 'causative'
• paŋu- 'by'
• sa- 'body parts'
• sa- 'when'
• si- 'verbal prefix'
• si- 'to wear'
• sini- 'from'
• su- 'to clean'
• su- 'belong'
• ta- 'to feel'
• taru- 'certain'
• tu- 'to mark'
• tua- 'to wash'
• θi- 'to release'
• u-/w- 'Agent Focus'

Suffixes

• -a 'imperative'
• -a 'Accusative Case'
• -ana 'still', 'yet'
• -anə 'nominalize'
• -ŋa 'completive'
• -ŋa 'close to'

Infixes

• -a- 'past tense; non-futur'
• -a- 'realis'
• -in- 'Goal subject', 'Past time'

Circumfixes

• a- ... -anə 'future state'
• a- ... -anə 'nominalizer'
• ka- ... -anə 'real or genuine'
• kala- ... -anə 'season'
• sa- ... -anə 'instrument'
• sanu- ... -anə 'left-over'
• sanu- ... -lə 'frequency'
• ta- ... -anə 'time', 'location'

Compound (Multiple) Affixes

• la-ma- 'plural marker'
• ɭi-tara- 'have to', must'
• sa-ka- 'household'
• sa-ka-u- ... -anə ; the whole'
• sa-ka-si- ... l-anə the…generatio
• ta-ra- for a period of tim
• ta-ra- be good at
• t-in-u- ... -anə personal relation

The following list of Mantauran Rukai affixes is sourced from Zeitoun (2007).

• a- 'when'
• a- (action/state nominalization)
• a- 'plural'
• -a 'beyond (in time or space)'
• -a 'irrealis'
• -a 'imperative'
• -ae (state nominalization)
• a- ... -ae; allomorph: ... -ae (objective nominalization; negative imperative)
• amo- 'will'
• -ane (meaning unknown; used on verbs to insult someone)
• -a-nga 'imperative' (mild requests)
• apaa- 'reciprocal causative' (dynamic verbs)
• apano- 'like to, prone to, have a tendency to'
• apa'a 'reciprocal causative' (stative verbs)
• apa'ohi- 'split (causative form)'
• -ci 'snivel'
• dh- 'invisible'
• i- 'at'
• -i 'irrealis'
• -i- ... -e (marking of the oblique case on personal and impersonal pronouns)
• -ka 'predicative negation'
• ka- 'in fact, indeed, actually'
• ka- ... -ae 'genuine, real, original'
• kala- ... -ae 'temporal nominalization'
• kapa ~ kama- 'continuously'
• kapa ... -nga 'all, every'
• ki- 'modal negation'
• ki- ... -ae 'whose'
• k<in>-a- ... -ae 'more and more'
• la- 'plural'
• la-ma'a- 'reciprocal'
• -lo 'plural' (demonstrative pronouns)
• m- (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with k-, p-, or Ø in its non-finite form)
• ma- (stative (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with ka- in its non-finite form)
• ma- ... -le (forms 'tens')
• ma-Ca- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with pa-Ca; Ca refers to the reduplication of the first consonant)
• maa- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with paa)
• maa- ... -e (~ paa- ... -e; maa- (dual reciprocal) + -e (meaning unknown))
• maaraka- 'each/both'
• maatali- ... -le/-lo '(a number of) floors'
• maka- 'finish'
• maka- ... -le/-lo (~ paka- ... -le/-lo) 'up to N-/for N- days/months/years'
• maka'an- (attaches only to aleve 'below' and lrahalre 'above')
• makini- ... -(a)e (~ pakini- ... -(a)e) 'all'
• mali- (~ pali) 'along'
• ma'ohi (~ pa'ohi) 'split'
• m-o- (~ o-) 'holds X's ritual (where X = household name)' (attaches to household names to form dynamic verbs)
• m-o- (~ o-) 'toward'
• mo- 'anti-causative'
• m-ore (~ ore-) 'perform'
• mota'a- (~ ota'a-) 'raise'
• n- 'visible'
• -na 'still'
• naa- 'continuously'
• -nae 'place where'
• -nae 'time when'
• -nga 'already'
• -nga 'superlative'
• ni- 'counterfactuality (irrealis)'
• ni- ... -a 'concessive'
• o- 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
• o- ... -e 'dress well' (derives verbs from nouns)
• o-ara- 'only' (attached to verbs)
• o-ka'a- ... -le/-lo (~ ko'a- ... -le/-lo) 'a number of )recipients'
• om- (~ m- / ~ Ø) 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
• o-tali (~ tali- / ~ toli) 'wrap up, pack up'
• o-tali (~ tali-) 'made of'
• o-tara- (~ tara-) 'a number of months / years'
• taro- (doublet form: tao-) 'group of persons in movement'
• o-ta'i- (~ ta'i-) 'precede'
• o-'ara- (~ 'ara-) 'early'
• pa- 'causative'
• pa- 'every N-times'
• paori 'stick to, think about'
• pa'a- ... -ae '(what is) left'
• pe- 'forbiddance (?)'
• pi- 'local causative'
• po- 'causative of movement'
• po- 'bear, grow N' (attaches to nouns)
• saka- 'external'
• samori- 'keep on ... -ing' (attaches only to the root kane 'to eat')
• sa'api- 'prone to, inclined to'
• so- 'tribute'
• ta- (subjective nominalization)
• ta- 'inalienability' (kinship and color terms)
• ta- ... -(a)e 'place where'
• ta- ... -ae 'time when'
• ta- ... -n-ae (forms derived locative nominal)
• taka- 'a number of persons'
• tako- 'while'
• tala- 'container' (?; found only with the root ove'eke)
• tali- 'belong to'
• ta'a- 'with (a group of persons)'
• ta'a- ... -le/-lo 'measure with an extended arm' (bound numerals)
• to- 'do, make, produce, build'
• toka- ... -(a)e 'use ... for, by ... -ing'
• to'a- 'use ... to, for'
• 'a- 'instrument/manner nominalizer'
• 'a- ... -e 'have a lot of'
• 'aa- 'turn into'
• 'aka- 'Nth' (ordinal prefix 'a- + stative marker ka- (non-finite form))
• 'ako- (doublet form: 'ako- ... -ae) 'speak (out)'
• 'ako- 'barely, a little'
• 'ako- ... -le 'say a number of times'
• 'ako- ... -nga 'more'
• 'ali- 'from (in time or space)' (< 'aliki '(come) from')
• 'ano- 'walk, ride, take'
• 'ano- 'unknown meaning' (only attaches to stative roots)
• 'ano-Ca- 'along/with a number of persons (in movement)' (attaches to bound numeral forms and certain other roots)
• 'ano- ... -ae 'entirely, completely, cease, alleviate'
• 'ao- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth time' (ordinal prefix 'a- + 'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times')
• 'apaka- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth day' (ordinal prefix 'a- + paka- ... -le/-lo 'up to/for a number of days / months / years)
• 'api- 'like ... -ing'
• 'a-po- 'as a result of'
• 'apo- 'come out'
• 'asa- ... -ae 'what's the use of'
• 'asi- (meaning unknown; found only once in the word 'work')
• 'i- 'passive'
• 'i- 'verbalizer' (from nouns; polysemous prefix). Semantic core of 'i-N is 'get, obtain-N', although it can also be glossed as 'get, harvest, gather, look after, bear, have for, kill, etc.'
• 'i- 'put on, wear' (derives verbs from nouns)
• 'ia- ... ae 'because of, out of'
• 'ini- 'movement toward'
• 'ini- 'cross'
• 'ini- 'consume'
• 'ini-Ca- '(one)self' (reflexive)
• 'ini- ... -ae 'pretend'
• 'ini- ... (-ae) 'behave like, look like' (derived from 'inilrao 'resemble')
• 'ira- 'for' (derived from 'iraki '(do) for')
• 'o- 'take off'
• 'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times' (attaches to bound numerals)
• 'o- ... -le/-lo 'measure' (must be followed by certain words to indicate a measure with the hand, foot, ruler, etc.)
• 'o-tali 'unpack'

The following list of Budai Rukai affixes is sourced from the Comparative Austronesian Dictionary (1995).

Nominal affixes

• ka- ... -anə + N 'something real or genuine
• ko- + Pronoun 'nominative'
• moasaka- + N (numeral) 'ordinal'
• sa- ... anə + V 'instrument, tool'
• sa- + N 'some body parts'
• ta- ... -anə + N 'location, time'
• ta-ra + N 'agentive, a person specialised in...'

Verbal affixes

• -a- + V 'realis'
• -a + V 'imperative'
• ki- + N 'to gather, to collect, to harvest'
• ki- + V 'dative-focus, involuntary action'
• ko- + N 'to remove, to peel'
• ko- + V 'intransitive, patient-focus'
• ma- + V 'mutual, reciprocal'
• maa- + V 'stative'
• mo- + N 'to discharge, remove'
• mo- + V '(to go) self-motion, non-causative'
• ŋi- + V 'to act or to move in a certain direction or manner'
• ŋo- + N 'to ride'
• pa- + V 'causative'
• si- + V (bound stem) 'verbal prefix'
• si- + N 'to wear, to carry, to possess'
• so- + N 'to spit, to clean, to give out'
• to- + N 'to make, produce, bring forth'
• θi + N 'to release'
• w- + V 'agent-focus, verbal prefix'

The following list of Mayrinax Atayal affixes is sourced from the Comparative Austronesian Dictionary (1995).

• Note: Some affixes are unglossed.

Verbal prefixes

• ma- 'stative'
• ma- 'active'
• man-
• mana-
• maɣ-
• ma-ša- 'reciprocal, mutual'
• ma-ši 'natural release or movement'
• pana-
• ma-ti-
• ʔi-
• pa- 'causative'
• ši- 'benefactive'
• ga- 'verbalizer'
• kan- + RED + N (body parts) 'body movement'
• ma-ka- 'mutual, reciprocal'
• maki- 'active verb'
• mat- 'to turn'
• mi-
• paš-
• ta- ... -an 'location'
• tiɣi- 'to release gas'
• tu- 'for some to...'

Verbal infixes

• -um- 'agent focus'
• -in- 'completive'

Verbal suffixes

• -an 'locative focus'
• -un 'object focus'
• -i 'imperative'
• -aw 'future or mild request'
• -ani 'polite request'

Nominal affixes

• -in- 'nominalizer'
• -in- ... -an 'nominalizer to indicate a completed action'

• Male affixes (i.e., male forms of speech in Mayrinax Atayal) include (Comparative Austronesian Dictionary): -niḳ, -iḳ, -ʔiŋ, -hiŋ, -iŋ, -tiŋ, -riʔ, -ḳiʔ, -niʔ, -nux, -ux, -hu, -u, -al, -liʔ, -kaʔ, -ha, -il, -in-, -il-, -i-, -a-, -na-.

The Pazih affixes below are from Li (2001:10-19).

Prefixes

• ha-: stative
• ka-: inchoative
• kaa-: nominal
• kai-: to stay at a certain location
• kali- -an: susceptible to, involuntarily
• m-: agent focus
• ma- (ka-): stative
• ma- (pa-): to have (noun); agent-focus
• maa- (paa-): - mutually, reciprocal
• maka- (paka-): to bear, bring forth
• mana- (pana-): to wash (body parts)
• mari- (pari-): to bear, to give birth (of animal)
• maru- (paru-): to lay eggs or give birth
• masa-: verbal prefix
• masi- (pasi-): to move, to wear
• mata-: (number of) times
• mati- (pati-): to carry, to wear, to catch
• matu- (patu-): to build, erect, set up
• maxa- (paxa-): to produce, to bring forth; to become
• maxi- (paxi-): to have, to bring forth; to look carefully
• me-, mi- (pi-), mi- (i-): agent-focus
• mia- (pia-): towards, to go
• mia- which one; ordinal (number)
• mu- (pu-): agent-focus (-um- in many other Formosan languages); to release
• pa-: verbalizer; causative, active verb
• paka-: causative, stative verb
• papa-: to ride
• pu-: to pave
• pu- -an: locative-focus, location
• sa- ~saa-, si-: instrumental-focus, something used to ..., tools
• si-: to have, to produce; to go (to a location)
• si- -an: to bring forth, to have a growth on one's body
• ta-: agentive, one specialized in ...; nominal prefix; verbal prefix
• tau-: agentive
• tau- -an: a gathering place
• taxa-: to feel like doing; to take a special posture
• taxi-: to lower one's body
• taxu-: to move around
• ti-: to get something undesirable or uncomfortable
• tu-: stative
• xi-: to turn over, to revert

Infixes

• -a-: progressive, durative
• -in-: perfective

Suffixes

• -an: locative-focus, location
• -an ~ -nan: locative pronoun or personal name
• -aw: patient-focus, future
• -ay: locative-focus, irrealis
• -en ~ -un: patient-focus
• -i: patient-focus, imperative; vocative, address for an elder kinship
• CV- -an: location

The following affixes are sourced from Blust (2003:92-188).

• a- : only found in /kan/ 'eat'
• -ak : '1st person singular (I)'
• ak- ... -in : 'morning, noon, evening meals'
• an- : uncertain function
• -an : Verbal uses can be indicative, imperative, or adversative.
• i- : prefix or clitic particle marking location
• -i : imperative
• -ik : patient focus (1st person singular)
• -in- : perfective or completive aspect
• -in : patient focus
• ish- : found most with intransitive verbs (uncommon prefix)
• ka- : 'to make an X', 'two times' (with reduplication)
• ka- ... -an : meaning unclear
• kal- : 'X told'
• kalh- : 'to pile, spread'
• kash- : 'intensity, repitition'
• kashi- : meaning uncertain
• kashi- ... -an : 'pull by the X'
• kashun- : derives verbs referring to positions of the human body, or sometimes objects such as boats
• kat- : 'gradually become X'
• ki- : 'stand, stay'; other possible meanings as well
• ki- ... -an : 'be affected with pain in the X'
• kilh- : 'search for, seek'
• kin- : 'to pick or gather X'
• kit- ... -in : 'infested with X'
• ku- : 'to perform an action with X' (when used with tools or weapons); less specific in other contexts
• kun- : 'sudden or abrupt action', 'to eat the X meal', 'to do X times'; meaning unclear sometimes
• la- : usually found in expressions of quantity of degree
• lhin- : causative sense
• lhun- : swelling-related meanings, etc.
• m- : marks the genitive in 'you (2s)' and 'we (incl.)'
• ma- : marks stative verbs, occasionally nouns derived from stative verbs
• ma- : active verb prefix
• ma- : prefix marking the future in actor focus verbs
• ma- : 'tens' (used with numbers)
• mak- : intransitive verbs
• maka- : 'to resemble X' (people), 'produce X' (plant or animal parts), 'from/in/to X' (deictic/directional expressions)
• makin- : intransitive verbs; 'Xth from the bottom' (with numerals)
• makit- : 'happen gradually', 'perform X gradually'
• maku- : directional sense, and is followed by /na/- (though it does not follow not in non-locative expressions)
• malhi- : 'give birth to an X'
• man- : generally used with dynamic, intransitive verbs
• mana- : generally found with directional verbs
• mapa- : 'reciprocal', 'collective action'
• mash- : 'to speak X' (language), 'walk with an X' (positions or conditions of the leg)
• masha- : relates to body positions, or may have a directional meaning
• mashi- : comparatives (with stative bases of measurement); often synonymous with /ma/- (stative verb marker)
• mat- : derives intransitive or stative verbs
• mati- : locative expressions
• matin- + full reduplication : 'X-ish' or 'spotted with X' (colors)
• mi- : derives intransitive verbs, often with some form of base reduplication
• mi- + Ca reduplication : 'do with a group of X'
• mia- : used to derive various verbs
• min- : derives inchoative verbs (Bunun loan?); 'become an X' or 'become like an X' (with kinship terms)
• mu- : most frequently derives verbs of motion; 'go into X; enter X' (with concrete nouns that refer to structures or places capable of being entered); 'search for X' (with names of useful plants); 'do X times' (numeral bases and expressions of quantity)
• mun- : intransitive verbs
• -n : derives accusative pronouns from nominative bases
• na- : most commonly with verbs indicating change of location; 'it's up to X'
• pa- : causative of dynamic verbs (verbs with -/um/-); 'make X do Y' or 'let X do Y'; active transitive (or intransitive) verb with no causative argument/sense
• pak- : 'exude X' (body fluids, other natural fluids/substances); intransitive verb prefix
• pan- : 'perform X in a downward direction'
• pan- ... -an : used with terms for lineal consanguines to derive the corresponding collateral terms of the same generation (e.g., 'father' > 'uncle', 'grandparent' > 'grandparental sibling')
• pash- ... -an : 'place in which X is kept'
• pashi- : generally causative sense (often with Ca-reduplication); 'let X do it' or 'let X have it' (with the accusative forms of personal pronouns)
• pashi- ... -an : 'put X on' or 'wear X'
• pat- : generally causative sense
• pi- : causative verbs of location (can be paired with /i/- 'at, in, on'); may also form non-locative verbs
• pia- : forms causative verbs (usually have stative counterparts with /ma/-; note that /pa/- and -/um/- are also counterparts.); simulative verb
• pik- : generally causative sense
• pin- : generally forms causative verbs or deverbal nouns
• pish- : 'play X' (musical instruments); inchoative sense (sometimes with an implied element of suddenness); causative sense
• pu- : causative or transitive counterpart of the movement prefix /mu/-, which is intransitive; 'use an X' or 'put in an X' (with names of some tools); 'send out an X' (with names of plant parts)
• pu- ... -an : to wear X' (body ornaments)
• pun- : 'to catch X' (animals used for food)
• qata- : bodily movement, observation, and the like
• sha- : directional sense ('facing', etc.)
• shan-na-Ca- ... : 'it's up to X' (often with pronouns)
• shau- : 'go to X' or 'arrive at X' (with bases that have an inherently locative sense or temporal sense)
• shi- : appears to mark past tense (as opposed to the perfective aspect marker -/in/-)
• shi- : sometimes appears with commands
• shi-X-X : 'X-ish, somewhat X'
• shi-X-iz: 'X times'
• shu- : 'bring X' or 'take X' (with pronominal and deictic bases)
• tana- : generally directional sense (from Bunun /tana/- 'prefix of direction')
• tau- : 'to carry X' (with concrete nouns); 'to turn to X' (with bases having a directional meaning)
• tish- : forms both transitive and intransitive verbs; often refers to results of non-deliberate actions
• tu-Ca- ... : 'the odor of X'
• -um- : actor focus infix
• un- ... -an : 'undesirable bodily conditions or afflictions'; 'figurative extension of a physical affliction'
• -un : equivalent of -/in/ 'patient focus' (borrowed from Bunun)
• -wak : 1st person singular actor (apparently distinct from -/ak/)
• -wan : 'X's turn (to do something)'
• ya- : only comes after /mapa/- 'reciprocal or collective action'
• -zan : 'X paces' (used with numerals)

Quasi-affixes

• kan 'step, walk'
• lhqa 'live, living'
• pasaháy 'to use'
• qalha 'much, many'
• sa (usually almost impossible to translate in most environments)

The Kavalan affixes below are from Li (2006:14-24).

Prefixes

• i-: stative, having to do with location
• kar-: rapid motion; defective, not perfect
• ki-, qi-: pluck, pidl
• kin-: number of humans
• lu-: flat
• luq(e)-: bumpy, rough (used with stative verbs)
• m-, -m-, mu-, -u-, -um-: agent-focus
• ma-, m-: stative
• maq-: where from
• mar-: sine kind of shape
• mi-: discharge something from the body
• mri-: settle down; to shrink, huddle up
• mrim-: a division of (a numeral)
• nan-: two people (kinship); distributive numeral
• ni-, n-, -in-, -n-: past, perfective
• pa-: causative (used with active verbs)
• pa- -an: agentive
• pa-ti: personal marker for the dead
• paq-, paqa-: causative (used with stative verbs)
• paq-: get on (a boat)
• pa-qi-: cause to become
• pat-: make a change
• pi-: put into, put away; do something to protect a body part; every (time)
• qa-: immediate future; ride, take (means of transportation)
• qa- -an: place of/for
• qaRu-: become, transform into; transformable into
• qi-: pick, gather, get
• qna-: nominaizer (used with stative verbs; -an is used with active verbs)
• Ra-: to transform into
• Ra-CV-: light color of
• Ri-: catch, get
• Ru-: just now; for the first time
• sa-: have the event (natural phenomena); do, make, produce, have; secrete (body fluid); tool
• sam-CV-: pretend
• saqa-: ordinal (numeral)
• si-: wear, own, possess
• sia-: go towards (place/direction); go to the side (often euphemistic for urinating/defecating)
• sim-: reciprocal
• siqa-: (number of) times
• smu-: finger
• sna-: model of, copy of
• su-: remove; move downwards, upside down, slanting
• su-CV-: stink or smell of
• tan-: speak the language
• taRi-: position, people in such a position
• ti-: instrumental-focus; to take eacher other (?)
• ti- (-an): beneficiary-focus
• tRi-CV(C)- (-an): discharge (body discharge) with control
• u-: agent-focus; non-human numeral

Suffixes

• -a: irrealis patient-focus marker
• -an: locative-focus marker, nominalizer
• -i: irrealis non-agent-focus imperative

Infixes

• -m-, -um-: agent-focus
• -n-, -in-, ni-: perfective

The following list of Siraya verb affixes is from Adelaar (1997).

Affixes

• ni-: past tense
• ma-, m-, -m-: actor focus / orientation
• pa-: undergoer focus / orientation
• mey- ~ pey-: actor- and undergoer-oriented verbs (used with verbs describing a high degree of physical involvement)
• mu- ~ (p)u-: actor- and undergoer-oriented verbs (used with verbs describing a movement toward something)
• ma-: stative intransitive verbs; words with no apparent word-class affiliations (precategorials)
• paka-: causative
• pa-: transitive (often with causative result
• ka-: expresses feeling, emotion, sensation (undergoer-oriented verbs and deverbal nouns only)
• -ən, -an: undergoer focus / orientation
• -a, -ey, -aw: irrealis
• -(l)ato: possibly a perfective marker

Classifiers

Like Bunun and many other Formosan languages, Siraya has a rich set of verbal classifier prefixes.

• mattäy- / pattäy-: "talking, saying"
• smaki-: "throwing,casting"
• sau-: "swearing, making an oath"
• mu-, pu-: movement into a certain direction
• mey- / pey-: high degree of physical involvement
• sa-: movement through a narrow place
• taw-: downward movement, a movement within a confined space

The Puyuma affixes below are from Teng (2008:282-285).

Prefixes

• ika-: the shape of; forming; shaping
• ka-: stative marker
• kara-: collective, to do something together
• kare-: the number of times
• ki-: to get something
• kir-: to go against (voluntarily)
• kitu-: to become
• kur-: be exposed to; be together (passively)
• m-, ma-: actor voice affix/intransitive affix
• maka-: along; to face against
• mara-: comparative/superlative marker
• mar(e)-: reciprocal; plurality of relations
• mi-: to have; to use
• mu-: anticausative marker
• mutu-: to become, to transform into
• pa-/p-: causative marker
• pu-: put
• puka-: ordinal numeral marker
• piya-: to face a certain direction
• si-: to pretend to
• tara-: to use (an instrument), to speak (a language)
• tinu-: to simulate
• tua-: to make, to form
• u-: to go
• ya-: to belong to; nominalizer

Suffixes

• -a: perfective marker; numeral classifier
• -an: nominalizer; collective/plural marker
• -anay: conveyance voice affix/transitive affix
• -aw: patient voice affix/transitive affix
• -ay: locative voice affix/transitive affix
• -i, -u: imperative transitive marker

Infixes

• -in-: perfective marker
• -em-: actor voice affix/intransitive affix

Circumfixes

• -in-anan: the members of
• ka- -an: a period of time
• muri- -an: the way one is doing something; the way something was done
• sa- -an: people doing things together
• sa- -enan: people belonging to the same community
• si- -an: nominalizer
• Ca- -an, CVCV- -an: collectivity, plurality

The Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell (1982:15-27).

Prefixes

• ka-: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker
• ka- -an: principal, main
• kaɬa- -an: time/place characterized by something
• ma-ka-: go past, via; having finished
• pa-ka-: go/cause to go by way of (something/place)
• ka-si-: come from
• ken(e)-: eat, drink, consume
• ki-: get, obtain
• ku-: my; I (as agent of non-agent focus verb)
• ɬa-: belonging to a given category
• ɬe-: to go in the direction of
• ɬia-: (have) come to be in/at
• li-: have quality of
• ma-: be affected by, be in condition of (involuntary)
• mare-: having reciprocal relationship
• mare-ka-: in some general category
• maɬe-: number of persons
• me-: agent marker usually involving change of status (used with certain verbs)
• mere-: be gigantic, super-
• mi-: agent marker that is usually intransitive (used with certain verbs)
• mi- -an: pretend, claim
• mu-: agent marker (certain verbs)
• ka-na- -anga: every
• pa-: to cause to be/occur
• pe-: emerge, come into view
• pi-: put in/on; do something to
• pu-: have or produce; acquire
• pu- -an: place where something is put or kept
• ma-pu-: do nothing except ...
• ra-: having to do with
• r-m-a-: do at/during
• r-m-a- -an: do at/in
• sa-: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of
• pa-sa-: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing
• ki-sa-: use, utilize, employ
• na-sa-: perhaps, most likely is
• san(e)-: construct, work on/in
• ki-sane(e)-: become/act as; one who acts as
• ru-: do frequently/habitually; have many of
• se-: people of (village/nation); have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally
• s-ar-e-: be in state/condition of (involuntary)
• si-: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past
• ma-si-: carry, transport
• su-: your; you (agent of non-agent focus verb); leave, remove, desist from
• ki-su-: remove or have removed from oneself
• ta-: past marker
• tu-: similar to, like
• ma-ru-: be dissimilar but of same size
• tja-: our, we (inclusive); more, to a greater extent, further
• ki-tja-: take along for use
• tjaɬa- -an: most, -est
• tjara-: be definitely
• tjaɬu-: reach/extend as far as
• tjari-: furthest, utmost
• tja-u-: to have just done
• tje-: choose to do at/from
• ka-tje- -an: containing
• tji-: used mainly in plant/animal species names (non-Kulalao frozen affix)
• tji-a-: be/remain at
• tju-: do/use separately; be/do at certain place
• m-uri-: search for

Infixes

• -aɬ-, -al-, -ar-: having sound or quality of; involving use of; non-Kulalao
• -ar-: do indiscriminately, on all sides; non-Kulalao
• -m-: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words
• -in-: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words

Suffixes

• -an: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus
• -en: object/goal of action; object focus
• -aw, -ay: projected or intended action, referent focus
• -u: agent focus (most subordinate clauses); most peremptory imperative
• -i: object focus (most subordinate clauses); polite imperative
• -ɬ: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time

The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory (Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995).

Nouns

• -aḷ-, -al^y- 'tiny things'
• -in- 'things made from plant roots'
• -an 'place' (always used with another affix)
• mar(ə)- 'a pair of' (used for humans only'
• pu- 'rich'
• ḳay- 'vegetation'
• sə- 'inhabitants'
• cua- 'name of a tribe'

Verbs

• -aŋa 'already done'
• ka- 'to complete'
• kə- 'to do something oneself'
• ki- 'to do something to oneself'
• kisu- 'to get rid of'
• kicu- 'to do something separately'
• maCa- 'to do something reciprocally' (where C indicates the initial consonant of the stem)
• mə- 'to experience, to be something'
• pa- 'to cause someone to do something'
• pu- 'to produce, to get something'
• sa- 'to be willing to do something'
• cal^yu- 'to arrive at'

Adjectives

• ma- 'being'
• na- 'with the quality of'
• səcal^yi- 'very'
• ca- 'more than'

Below are some Takivatan Bunun verbal prefixes from De Busser (2009).

In short:

• Movement from: Cu-
• Dynamic event: Ca-
• Stative event: Ci-
• Inchoative event: Cin-
• Neutral: mV-
• Causative: pV-
• Accusative: kV-

A more complete list of Bunun affixes from De Busser (2009) is given below.

Focus

• agent focus (AF): -Ø
• undergoer focus (UF): -un (also used as a nominalizer)
• locative focus (LF): -an (also used as a nominalizer)

Tense-aspect-mood (TAM) affixes

• na- irrealis (futurity, consequence, volition, imperatives). This is also the least bound TAM prefix.
• -aŋ progressive (progressive aspect, simultaneity, expressing wishes/optative usage
• -in perfective (completion, resultative meaning, change of state, anteriority)
• -in- past/resultative (past, past/present contrast
• -i- past infix which occurs only occasionally

Participant cross-reference

• -Ø agent
• -un patient
• -an locative
• is- instrumental
• ki- beneficiary

Locative prefixes

• Stationary ‘at, in’: i-
• Itinerary ‘arrive at’: atan-, pan-, pana-
• Allative ‘to’: mu-, mun-
• Terminative ‘until’: sau-
• Directional ‘toward, in the direction of’: tan-, tana-
• Viative ‘along, following’: malan-
• Perlative ‘through, into’: tauna-, tuna-, tun-
• Ablative ‘from’: maisna-, maina-, maisi-, taka-

Event-type prefixes

• ma- Marks dynamic events
• ma- Marks stative events
• mi- Marks stative negative events
• a- Unproductive stative prefix
• paŋka- Marks material properties (stative)
• min- Marks result states (transformational)
• pain- Participatory; marks group actions

Causative

• pa- causative of dynamic verb
• pi- causative of stative verb
• pu- cause to go towards

Classification of events

• mis- burning events
• tin- shock events
• pala- splitting events
• pasi- separating events
• kat- grasping events

Patient-incorporating prefixes

• bit- 'lightning'
• kun- 'wear'
• malas- 'speak'
• maqu- 'use'
• muda- 'walk'
• pas- 'spit'
• qu- 'drink'
• sa- 'see'
• tal- 'wash'
• tapu- 'have trait'
• tastu- 'belong'
• taus-/tus- 'give birth'
• tin- 'harvest'
• tum- 'drive'

Verbalizers

• pu- verbalizer: 'to hunt for'
• maqu- verbalizer: 'to use'
• malas- verbalizer: 'to speak'