This is a Swadesh list of words in Ashkun, compared with definitions in English.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
M = Masegal dialect, S = Sanu (Wama) dialect
| № | English | Ashkun Aṣkuňu edit (174) | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | I (1sg) | ay (M, S) | /ˈai̯/ |
| 2 | you (2sg) | tu (M, S) | /ˈt̪u/ |
| 3 | he, she, it (3sg) | yak (M, S), sëga (M), ki, sëkë (S) | /ˈjak/, /sɘˈɡa/, /ˈki/, /sɘˈkɘ/ |
| 4 | we (1pl) | ima (M), imë (S) | /iˈma/, /ˈimɘ/ |
| 5 | you (2pl) | vī (M), vi (S) | /ˈβiː/, /ˈβi/ |
| 6 | they (3pl) | yakē̃, sëgē̃ (M), yakãy, kyẽy, sakãy (S) | /jaˈkẽː/, /sɘˈɡẽː/, /ˈjakãi̯/, /ˈkjẽi̯/, /saˈkãi̯/ |
| 7 | this | yak (M, S) | /ˈjak/ |
| 8 | that | sëga (M), ki, sëkë (S) | /sɘˈɡa/, /ˈki/, /sɘˈkɘ/ |
| 9 | here | timu (M), timo (S) | /ˈt̪imu/, /ˈt̪imo/ |
| 10 | there | tiko (M), tika (S) | /ˈt̪iko/, /t̪iˈka/ |
| 11 | who | ćay (S) | /ˈt͡sai̯/ |
| 12 | what | kā (M, S) | /ˈkaː/ |
| 13 | where | kū̃ (M), koňo (S) | /kũː/, /koˈɽõ/ |
| 14 | when | këvi (S) | /ˈkɘβi/ |
| 15 | how | kākāći (S) | /ˈkaːkaːt͡si/ |
| 16 | not | në (M) | /ˈn̪ɘ/ |
| 17 | all | sëvāk (S) | /sɘˈβaːk/ |
| 18 | many | ||
| 19 | some | avëḍë (S) | /ˈaβɘɖɘ/ |
| 20 | few | apëlēk (M), apilyëk (S) | /apɘl̪ˈeːk/, /apil̪ˈjɘk/ |
| 21 | other | źadë (S) | /ˈd͡zad̪ɘ/ |
| 22 | one | ac̣ (M, S) | /ˈaʈ͡ʂ/ |
| 23 | two | du (M, S) | /ˈd̪u/ |
| 24 | three | tre (M), trë (S) | /ˈt̪ɾe/, /ˈt̪ɾɘ/ |
| 25 | four | ćatā (M, S) | /ˈt͡saˈt̪aː/ |
| 26 | five | pũć (M), põć (S) | /ˈpũt͡s/, /ˈpõt͡s/ |
| 27 | big | awlë (M) | /ˈau̯l̪ɘ/ |
| 28 | long | drigalë (M) | /d̪ɾiɡaˈl̪ɘ/ |
| 29 | wide | vistëṛë (M) | /βist̪ɘˈɽɘ/ |
| 30 | thick | ||
| 31 | heavy | gandalë (M) | /ɡan̪d̪aˈl̪ɘ/ |
| 32 | small | lakurë (M) | /l̪akuˈɾɘ/ |
| 33 | short | ||
| 34 | narrow | lakurë (M) | /l̪akuˈɾɘ/ |
| 35 | thin | ||
| 36 | woman | istrimali (M), istrëmali (S) | /ist̪ɾimaˈl̪i/, /ist̪ɾɘmaˈl̪i/ |
| 37 | man (adult male) | mać (M, S) | /ˈmat͡s/ |
| 38 | man (human being) | ||
| 39 | child | kūṛë (M), přā̃ (S) | /ˈkuːɽɘ/, /ˈpɹãː/ |
| 40 | wife | istrī (M, S) | /isˈt̪ɾiː/ |
| 41 | husband | mać (M, S) | /ˈmat͡s/ |
| 42 | mother | aṛaw (M), avāk (S) | /ˈaɽau̯/, /aˈβaːk/ |
| 43 | father | day (M, S) | /ˈd̪ai̯/ |
| 44 | animal | yoṣkōṣ (S) | /joʂˈkoːʂ/ |
| 45 | fish | mōć (M, S) | /ˈmoːt͡s/ |
| 46 | bird | niṅasë (M, S) | /n̪iŋaˈsɘ/ |
| 47 | dog | kuṛi (M, S) | /ˈkuɽi/ |
| 48 | louse | vū (M, S) | /ˈβuː/ |
| 49 | snake | kërëṣ (M, S) | /kɘˈɾɘʂ/ |
| 50 | worm | gōk (M, S) | /ˈɡoːk/ |
| 51 | tree | kandë (M), këndë (S) | /kan̪ˈd̪ɘ/, /kɘn̪ˈd̪ɘ/ |
| 52 | forest | bën (S) | /ˈbɘn̪/ |
| 53 | stick | ḍuḍë (S) | /ɖuˈɖɘ/ |
| 54 | fruit | myëvë (S) | /mjɘˈβɘ/ |
| 55 | seed | bi (M, S) | /ˈbi/ |
| 56 | leaf | pār (M, S) | /ˈpaːɾ/ |
| 57 | root | ži (S) | /ˈʑi/ |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | ći (M, S) | /ˈt͡si/ |
| 59 | flower | pësup (M), pusup (S) | /pɘˈsup/, /puˈsup/ |
| 60 | grass | ṣuć (M), yos (S) | /ˈʂut͡s/, /ˈjos/ |
| 61 | rope | ẓūtr (M) | /ˈʐuːt̪ɾ/ |
| 62 | skin | ćam (M, S) | /ˈt͡sam/ |
| 63 | meat | anda (M), anā (S) | /an̪ˈd̪a/, /aˈn̪aː/ |
| 64 | blood | lëw (M, S) | /ˈl̪ɘu̯/ |
| 65 | bone | aṭi (M, S) | /aˈʈi/ |
| 66 | fat (noun) | šikā (M, S) | /ɕiˈkaː/ |
| 67 | egg | žaw (M, S) | /ˈʑau̯/ |
| 68 | horn | šiṅ (M, S) | /ˈɕiŋ/ |
| 69 | tail | dumašī (M) | /dumaˈɕiː/ |
| 70 | feather | paṭu (S) | /paˈʈu/ |
| 71 | hair | dru (M), ćës (S) | /ˈd̪ɾu/, /ˈt͡sɘs/ |
| 72 | head | ṣā (M, S) | /ˈʂaː/ |
| 73 | ear | karmuṭë (M), karmoṭë (S) | /kaɾmuˈʈɘ/, /kaɾmoˈʈɘ/ |
| 74 | eye | aćĩ (M, S) | /aˈt͡sĩ/ |
| 75 | nose | nāsuṛi (M), kësërë (S) | /naːsuˈɽi/, /kɘsɘˈɾɘ/ |
| 76 | mouth | aši (M, S) | /aˈši/ |
| 77 | tooth | dõt (M, S) | /ˈd̪õt̪/ |
| 78 | tongue (organ) | žū (M, S) | /ˈʑuː/ |
| 79 | fingernail | nawćã (M, S) | /nau̯ˈt͡sã/ |
| 80 | foot | kur (M, S) | /ˈkuɾ/ |
| 81 | leg | ||
| 82 | knee | zā̃ (M), ḍoṅ (S) | /ˈzãː/, /ˈɖoŋ/ |
| 83 | hand | dus (M), dost (S) | /ˈd̪us/, /ˈd̪ost̪/ |
| 84 | wing | undrãvaṭ (S) | /un̪d̪ɾãβˈaʈ/ |
| 85 | belly | vāš (M), čiṭāl (S) | /ˈβaːɕ/, /t͡ɕiˈʈaːl̪/ |
| 86 | guts | ẓo (M, S) | /ˈʐo/ |
| 87 | neck | mandë (M), maraňīk (S) | /man̪ˈd̪ɘ/, /maɾaˈɽ̃iːk/ |
| 88 | back | pṣṭi (M, S) | /pʂˈʈi/ |
| 89 | breast | ćuću (M, S) | /t͡suˈt͡su/ |
| 90 | heart | židi (M, S) | /ʑiˈd̪i/ |
| 91 | liver | vyën (M), yon (S) | /ˈβjɘn̪/, /ˈjon̪/ |
| 92 | to drink | pī- (M, S) | /ˈpiː/ |
| 93 | to eat | yu- (M), yo- (S) | /ˈju/, /ˈjo/ |
| 94 | to bite | c̣ëkër-, křov- (S) | /ʈ͡ʂɘˈkɘɾ/, /kɹoβ/ |
| 95 | to suck | ćōp- (S) | /ˈt͡soːp/ |
| 96 | to spit | ||
| 97 | to vomit | ||
| 98 | to blow | ||
| 99 | to breathe | ||
| 100 | to laugh | kōn- (M, S) | /koːn̪/ |
| 101 | to see | vēň- (M), vyeň- (S) | /βeːɽ̃/, /βjeɽ̃/ |
| 102 | to hear | puruz- (M) | /puɾuz/ |
| 103 | to know | niṅa- (M, S) | /n̪iˈŋa/ |
| 104 | to think | tāṛ- (M), bat- (S) | /t̪aːɽ/, /bat̪/ |
| 105 | to smell | ||
| 106 | to fear | drām- (M) | /d̪ɾaːm/ |
| 107 | to sleep | lag- (M) | /l̪aɡ/ |
| 108 | to live | ||
| 109 | to die | mře- (M, S) | /mɹe/ |
| 110 | to kill | lā- (S) | /ˈl̪aː/ |
| 111 | to fight | ||
| 112 | to hunt | ||
| 113 | to hit | vī- (M) | /βiː/ |
| 114 | to cut | šipa- (M, S) | /ɕiˈpa/ |
| 115 | to split | ćinā- (M), šipā- (M), šipa- (S) | /t͡siˈn̪aː/, /ɕiˈpaː/, /ɕiˈpa/ |
| 116 | to stab | ||
| 117 | to scratch | čikëṛ- (M) | /t͡ɕikɘɽ/ |
| 118 | to dig | ||
| 119 | to swim | ||
| 120 | to fly | undr- (S) | /un̪d̪ɾ/ |
| 121 | to walk | ||
| 122 | to come | ay- (M, S) | /ˈai̯/ |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | ||
| 124 | to sit | nišā- (M) | /n̪iˈɕaː/ |
| 125 | to stand | ō̃st- (M), ut- (S) | /õːst̪/, /ut/ |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | pëlëṅ- (M, S) | /pɘˈl̪ɘŋ/ |
| 127 | to fall | lag- (M) | /l̪aɡ/ |
| 128 | to give | pře- (M, S) | /pɹe/ |
| 129 | to hold | ||
| 130 | to squeeze | vīṣṭ- (S) | /βiːʂʈ/ |
| 131 | to rub | kōṣ- (S) | /koːʂ/ |
| 132 | to wash | niź- (M, S), dër- (S) | /n̪id͡z/, /d̪ɘɾ/ |
| 133 | to wipe | ||
| 134 | to pull | keṣavā- (M) | /keʂaβaː/ |
| 135 | to push | ||
| 136 | to throw | čaṭā- (M) | /t͡ɕaˈʈaː/ |
| 137 | to tie | gō̃ṭ- (M, S) | /ˈɡõːʈ/ |
| 138 | to sew | šiv- (M, S) | /ɕiβ/ |
| 139 | to count | gëň- (M, S) | /ɡɘɽ̃/ |
| 140 | to say | bal- (S) | /bal̪/ |
| 141 | to sing | ||
| 142 | to play | ||
| 143 | to float | ||
| 144 | to flow | gut- (M) | /ɡut̪/ |
| 145 | to freeze | ||
| 146 | to swell | puṇ- (S) | /puɳ/ |
| 147 | sun | so (M, S) | /ˈso/ |
| 148 | moon | mas (M, S) | /ˈmas/ |
| 149 | star | ista (M), istã (S) | /isˈt̪a/, /isˈt̪ã/ |
| 150 | water | abo (M, S) | /aˈbo/ |
| 151 | rain | nalī (S) | /n̪aˈl̪iː/ |
| 152 | river | gulabo (M), golabo (S) | /ɡul̪aˈbo/, /ɡol̪aˈbo/ |
| 153 | lake | sur (M), nīl (S) | /ˈsuɾ/, /ˈn̪iːl̪/ |
| 154 | sea | ||
| 155 | salt | ẓōk (M, S) | /ˈʐoːk/ |
| 156 | stone | vāṭ (M, S) | /ˈβaːʈ/ |
| 157 | sand | šōňë (M, S) | /ɕoːˈɽ̃ɘ/ |
| 158 | dust | odūṛ, uduṛū (M) | /oˈd̪uːɽ/, /ud̪uˈɽuː/ |
| 159 | earth | bum (M, S) | /ˈbum/ |
| 160 | cloud | nalī (M), lāňa (S) | /n̪aˈl̪iː/, /l̪aːˈɽ̃a/ |
| 161 | fog | nalyuduṛ (S) | /n̪al̪juˈd̪uɽ/ |
| 162 | sky | dī (M), dīkaṭë (S) | /ˈd̪iː/, /d̪iːkaˈʈɘ/ |
| 163 | wind | domō (M, S) | /d̪oˈmoː/ |
| 164 | snow | žim (M, S) | /ˈʑim/ |
| 165 | ice | astrëmë (M) | /ast̪ɾɘˈmɘ/ |
| 166 | smoke | dūm (M, S) | /ˈd̪uːm/ |
| 167 | fire | aṅa (M, S) | /aˈŋa/ |
| 168 | ash | ṣūti (M, S) | /ʂuːˈt̪i/ |
| 169 | to burn | ṣož- (M), lōṣ- (S) | /ʂoʑ/, /l̪oːʂ/ |
| 170 | road | vëričo (M, S) | /βɘɾiˈt͡ɕo/ |
| 171 | mountain | da (M, S) | /ˈd̪a/ |
| 172 | red | ẓutëstë (M), ẓutārāṅ (S) | /ʐut̪ɘsˈt̪ɘ/, /ʐut̪aːˈɾaːŋ/ |
| 173 | green | aydrëstë (M), aydrë-arāṅ, kawkoňë-arāṅ (S) | /ai̯d̪ɾɘsˈt̪ɘ/, /ai̯d̪ɾɘ aˈɾaːŋ/, /kau̯koɽ̃ɘ aˈɾaːŋ/ |
| 174 | yellow | aydrëstë (M), aydrë-arāṅ (S) | /ai̯d̪ɾɘsˈt̪ɘ/, /ai̯d̪ɾɘ aˈɾaːŋ/ |
| 175 | white | kaširë (M) | /kaɕiˈɾɘ/ |
| 176 | black | žikëstë (M) | /ʑikɘsˈt̪ɘ/ |
| 177 | night | ẓātr (M), ẓatār (S) | /ˈʐaːt̪ɾ/, /ʐaˈt̪aːɾ/ |
| 178 | day | vās (M, S) | /ˈβaːs/ |
| 179 | year | vēl (M, S) | /ˈβeːl̪/ |
| 180 | warm | tapë (M) | /t̪aˈpɘ/ |
| 181 | cold | ac̣ëgë (M, S) | /aʈ͡ʂɘˈɡɘ/ |
| 182 | full | pareystë (M) | /paɾei̯sˈt̪ɘ/ |
| 183 | new | nuṅë (M) | /n̪uˈŋɘ/ |
| 184 | old | ||
| 185 | good | maystë (M) | /mai̯sˈt̪ɘ/ |
| 186 | bad | apalë (M) | /ˈapal̪ɘ/ |
| 187 | rotten | ||
| 188 | dirty | mol (M, S) | /ˈmol̪/ |
| 189 | straight | uzëmë (M) | /uzɘˈmɘ/ |
| 190 | round | ||
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | ćinalë (M) | /t͡sin̪aˈl̪ɘ/ |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | bukëstë (M) | /bukɘsˈt̪ɘ/ |
| 193 | smooth | ||
| 194 | wet | trupalë (M) | /t̪ɾupaˈl̪ɘ/ |
| 195 | dry | susustë (M) | /sususˈt̪ɘ/ |
| 196 | correct | maystë (M) | /mai̯sˈt̪ɘ/ |
| 197 | near | pëtëvërëk (S) | /pɘt̪ɘβɘˈɾɘk/ |
| 198 | far | sëdu (M, S) | /sɘˈd̪u/ |
| 199 | right | dëćũ (M) | /d̪ɘˈt͡sũ/ |
| 200 | left | kaval (M) | /kaˈβal̪/ |
| 201 | at | -dã (M) | /d̪ã/ |
| 202 | in | -dã (M) | /d̪ã/ |
| 203 | with | miš (M) | /ˈmiɕ/ |
| 204 | and | -o (M) | /o/ |
| 205 | if | ||
| 206 | because | ||
| 207 | name | nām (M) | /ˈn̪aːm/ |