Proto-Arawakan reconstructions by Ramirez (2019), Aikhenvald (2002), Jolkesky (2016):[1][2]
Proto-Arawak reconstructions by Ramirez (2019: 39, 509, 764-766):[3]
| Portuguese gloss | Proto-Arawak | English translation |
|---|---|---|
| cabeça | *-kɨwɨ | head |
| olho | *-l(-)ʊkɨ | eye |
| orelha | *kenai | ear |
| nariz | *-kiri | nose |
| boca | *-kanakɨ; *-nʊma | mouth |
| lábio | *kira- | lip |
| dente | *-atsɨ-wɨ | teeth |
| língua | *-neni | tongue |
| unha | *-tsʊta | nail |
| unha | *-hʊba-da | nail |
| perna | *kawa | leg |
| pé | *-kidiba | foot |
| coxa | *-pʊkɨ | hip |
| perna | *-kati | leg |
| mão | *-khapɨ, *kabi | hand |
| braço | *-kanʊ | arm |
| braço | *-dana | arm |
| excremento | *-idika | excrement |
| urina | *-tsinɨ | urine |
| urinar | *-(a)laka | to urinate |
| pescoço | *-nʊ | neck |
| peito | *-dʊkʊ | chest |
| seio | *-dɨnɨ | breast |
| osso | *(n)apɨ | bone |
| sangue | *-ɨtha | blood |
| carne | *-ɨdɨ- | flesh |
| pele | *-ɨma | skin |
| casca | *-ɨda | bark |
| flor | *-çɨwɨ | flower |
| raiz | *dabarɨ | root |
| folha | *-bana | leaf |
| semente | *-ikɨ | seed |
| cauda | *-idi-pi | tail |
| mulher | *tsɨna-rʊ | woman |
| esposa | *-inʊ | wife |
| mãe | *-ɨnʊ | mother |
| sol | *kamʊi | sun |
| céu, alto | *jenʊ | high |
| luz | *lʊkʊ | light |
| dia | *kedekʊ | day |
| lua | *kaçɨthɨ, *kahithi | moon |
| água | *hʊnɨ / *wene | water |
| água | *-la | water |
| rio | *wakʊ | river |
| casa | *-pana | house |
| aldeia | *-wɨnaka- | |
| terra | *kɨpakɨ, *kipatʃi | earth |
| pedra | *kɨba | rock, stone |
| pedra | *(h)epɨtsi | rock, stone |
| areia | *kadɨ | sand |
| fogo | *dika-ri | fire |
| lenha | *tsɨma | wood (material) |
| caminho | *-atɨn-apʊ / *adɨnapʊ | path |
| noite, preto | *la- | night |
| sal | *ɨtɨwɨ | salt |
| canoa | *(h)ita | canoe |
| frio | *(a)wada-rɨ | cold |
| pesado | *haɨmɨna | thought |
| comprido | *awia | |
| longe | *tekʊ | long |
| vermelho | *ɨra | red |
| verde | *hipʊrV | green |
| azedo | *kada-ma | sour, acid |
| amargo | *kepi-tsi, *kepidi | bitter |
| beber | *-dɨtha | to drink |
| comer | *-(a)nika | to eat |
| morder | *-arʊ | to bite |
| ouvir | *-kema | to open |
| dormir | *-dɨmaka | to sleep |
| sonho | *-tapʊni | dream |
| morrer | *kama-i | to die |
| morrer | *-maini | to die |
| matar | *-inʊ | to kill |
| ir | *(i)lanɨ | to go |
| chegar | *-ka | to arrive |
| dizer | *-ɨma | to say |
| lavar | *-kiba | to wash |
| tomar banho | *-aka | to bathe |
| vomitar | *-tikia | to vomit |
| voar | *-ara | to fly |
| nadar | *-amatha | to swim |
| sentado | *-ʊwa | seated |
| fazer | *tʊma | to make sth. |
| cortar | *tʊka | to shorten sth. |
| chorar | *-hija | to cry |
| cavar | *-kɨka | to dig |
| doer | *katsɨwi | to hurt |
| eu | *nʊ- | I |
| tu | *pɨ- | you (sg.) |
| nós | *wa- | we |
| vós | *hi- | you (pl.) |
| 3SG | *ɨnɨ | |
| 3REFL | *pa- | |
| positivo | *ka- | positive |
| negativo | *ma- | negative |
| independentizador | *-tsi | |
| dependentizador | *-ni | |
| dependentizador | *-rai | |
| plural | *-nawɨ | |
| plural | *-be | |
| passado | *-ini | past |
| um | *aba | one |
| dois | *pʊhinama | |
| animal | *pɨra | animal |
| tatu | *iwetɨ | |
| paca | *laba | |
| cutia | *pɨkʊɨrɨ, *pikɨli | |
| rato | *kihili | |
| anta | *kema | |
| quati | *kapiti, *kapedi | |
| macaco-prego | *pʊadɨ | |
| ave | *kʊdɨbɨra, *kʊdipira | bird |
| pato | *hʊbai | duck |
| jacu | *maradɨ | |
| cujubim | *kʊlʊi | |
| beija-flor | *pimɨtɨ | |
| jabuti | *hikʊri, *hikʊli | |
| peixe | *kʊpakɨ | fish |
| tocandira | *mainahɨ | |
| cupim | *kamatha | |
| abelha | *maba | bee |
| mosquito | *hainɨjʊ | mitch |
| mutuca | *kethi | |
| piolho | *ini | louse |
| árvore | *ada | tree |
| urucu | *hapɨ-kɨri | |
| mandioca | *kaini | manioc |
| batata-doce | *kalithi | |
| flecha | *tʊkʊ | arrow |
| English gloss | Proto-Arawak |
|---|---|
| manioc, sweet potato | *kali |
| moon | *kahɨ(tɨ) |
| water (n) | *hu(ː)ni |
| sun, heat | *kamui |
| sun | *ketʃi |
| hammock | *maka |
| long thing objects classifier | *-pi |
| snake | *api |
| road; limited space; hollow objects classifier | *-(a)pu |
| path | *(a)pu |
| leaflike objects classifier | *-pana |
| leaf | *pana |
| thin, powder-like classifier | *-phe |
| dust | *phe |
| arm | *dana |
| hand, shoulder, arm | *wahku |
| blood | *itha-hna |
| bone | *apɨ |
| breast, milk | *tenɨ |
| snout, nose | *t(h)aku |
| snout, nose | *kɨri |
| fingernail, claw | *huba |
| excrement | *(i)tika |
| ear | *da-keni |
| eye | *ukɨ/e |
| flesh, meat | *eki |
| flesh, meat | *ina |
| flesh, meat | *ipe |
| foot | *kipa |
| hair | *isi |
| hand | *k(h)apɨ |
| head | *kiwɨ |
| horn | *tsiwi |
| leg | *kawa |
| tongue | *nene |
| lip, tongue | *tʃɨra |
| mouth | *numa |
| skin | *mata |
| tail | *(i)di(-pi) |
| ash | *pali-ši |
| earth | *kɨpa |
| lake | *kaɨlesa |
| night | *tʃapu |
| salt | *(i)dɨwɨ |
| smoke | *kɨtʃa(li) |
| stone | *k(h)iba |
| agouti | *p(h)ɨkɨ-li |
| animal | *pɨra |
| ant | *manaci |
| armadillo | *yeti |
| bee, honey | *maba |
| bird | *kudɨ-pɨra |
| crocodile | *kasi/u |
| coati | *k(h)ape-di |
| chigoe flea | *iditu |
| fish | *kopaki |
| fish | *hima |
| flea, cockroach | *k(h)aya(pa?) |
| hummingbird | *pimi |
| dog, jaguar | *tsinu/i |
| dog | *auli |
| lizard | *dupu |
| louse | *(i)ni |
| monkey | *pude |
| mosquito | *hainiyu |
| peccary | *a(h)bɨya |
| mouse, rat | *kɨhi(ri) |
| tapir | *kema |
| termite | *kamatha/ra |
| toad | *ki(h)pa(ru) |
| tortoise | *si(n)pu |
| tortoise | *hiku(li) |
| turkey, guan | *mara-di |
| wasp | *hani/e |
| achiote | *(a)binki-thi |
| manioc, cassava | *kani |
| medicine, medicinal grass | *pini/a |
| firewood | *dika |
| firewood | *tsɨma |
| flower | *dewi |
| grass | *katʃau |
| leaf | *pana |
| pepper | *atʃɨ (di/ɨ) |
| root | *pale |
| seed | *(a)ki |
| tobacco | *yɨma |
| tree | *a(n)da |
| people, body | *mina |
| man, person | *(a)šeni/a |
| man, person | *(a)dia(-li) |
| brother | *p(h)e |
| people, man | *kaki(n) |
| wife, female relative | *ɨnu |
| woman | *tʃɨ na(-ru) |
| uncle, father-in-law | *kuhko |
| fan | *hewi |
| house | *pe, *pana/i |
| dream | *tapu |
| path | *(ah)tɨnɨ |
| above, sky | *(y)enu(hʔ) |
| bad | *ma(h)tʃi |
| bitter | *kep(h)idi |
| black, dirty | *k(h)u(e)re |
| cold | *kipa/e |
| green, blue, unripe | *šɨpule |
| new | *wada(li) |
| painful | *katʃi(wi) |
| red | *kɨra |
| sweet | *putsi |
| to arrive | *kau |
| to sweep | *pɨ(da) |
| to give | *po |
| to give | *da |
| to cry | *(i)ya |
| to be sick, die | *kama |
| to drink | *itha |
| to fly | *ara |
| to hear, understand | *kema |
| to wash | *kiba |
| to eat | *nika |
| to stand | *dɨma |
| to dig | *kika |
| 1st person; someone, another | *pa- |
| 2nd person | *(a)pi |
| 2nd person | *yama |
Note: The Nawiki languages are Kabiyari, Karu (Baniwa and Kuripako), Tariana, Mepuri, Piapoko-Achagua, Wainambu, Warekena-Mandawaka, and Yukuna-Wainuma (Mariate, Wainuma, and Yukuna).
| Portuguese gloss | Proto-Arawak | Proto-Nawiki |
|---|---|---|
| abelha | *maba | *maapa; *emuru; *muunu- |
| açai | *manakʰa-i | |
| ácido | *kaʦi | |
| água | *uni | *huuni; *aa |
| algodão | *ʦaawa-li | *ʦaawa-li |
| amarelo | *heewa | |
| amargo | *kepʰidi | |
| animal | *hamana; *-pira | |
| anta | *kema | |
| ânus | *haapu | |
| aranha | *heenui | |
| arara | *waaru; *aanda-ru | |
| arco | *jawi-tʰa; *ʤawi- | |
| arraia | *inatu-li | |
| árvore | *anda | *ahiku |
| asa | *aʔna-pɨ; *pʰai | |
| ayahuasca | *kaapi | |
| azedo/doce | *kaʔama | |
| batata | *hunai | |
| batata doce | *kʰalɨ-; *kalɨ- | *kali-; *kaliri |
| beiju | *pee-li | |
| bico | *kɨri | |
| bom | *kʰeime | |
| boto | *hamana; *munia | |
| braço | *aʔna-pɨ | |
| cabeça | *hiwida | |
| cabelo | *si; *-iti | *-ʧii |
| cachorro | *ʧiinu | |
| caititu (Pecari tajacu) | *jamu | |
| caminho | *apu; *apɨ | |
| canoa | *hiita | |
| capivara | *keeʦu | |
| carne | *ina; *tɨna | *ina; *iʔina |
| carrapato | *kuupa-li | |
| carvão | *kandaː-li; *men-ki | *kandaa-li |
| casa | *pe; *pana; *pani; *ponku; *ponko | *-pani |
| casca | *mada | |
| caxiri | *jalakʰi | |
| céu | *ʤeenu- | |
| chicha | *haʦi | |
| chupar | *ʧuʧu | *ʧuʧu |
| cinzas | *paliʃi; *pʰa(ne) | *paʔli |
| cipó | *hepe-pɨ | |
| cobra | *owi; *pi | |
| coca | *hiipatu | |
| comer | *ni-ka | *iiɲha |
| comprido | *-pʰi | |
| coruja | *punpu-li | |
| costas | *paʔrai | |
| cujubim | *kundui | |
| cupim | *maaru | |
| dar | *po | |
| defecar | *-iʦu | |
| dente | *ahʦe; *aɺi | |
| dois | *jama | |
| dono | *mina-li; *i-minali | |
| dormir | *maka; *imaka | *imaa |
| esquilo | *maade-li | |
| estrela | *hiwirhi | |
| falar | *-ima | |
| farinha | *maʧuka | |
| feijão | *kumana | |
| fezes | *itika; *itiki | *i-ʦu |
| fígado | *(uh)-bana | |
| filha | *-iitu | |
| filho | *eeni | |
| flecha | *iʦindua | |
| fogo | *i-ʦijai | |
| folha | *pana | *-pʰai |
| formiga | *kudɨ | |
| frio | *kaʧɨ- | |
| fumaça | *iiʦa, *iʦa | |
| galinha | *kalaka | |
| garça | *wakala | *maali |
| gente | *inawi- | |
| gordura | *-i-ʔiʦi | |
| grande | *maanu | |
| homem | *(w)aʧina-li | |
| iguana | *iwana | |
| inhame | *kali- | |
| interior | *-uʔku- | |
| ir | *kawa | |
| jacaré | *kasiu- | *kaʤhui- |
| jacu | *marai | |
| japu | *tuːwi-li | |
| lagarto | *iwana | *tuupu/*nduupu |
| lenha | *ʦɨma | |
| língua | *nene | *nene; *-enene |
| lua | *kahɨtʰi | *keeri |
| macaco | *kuhdi | |
| macaco-barrigudo | *kaapa-ru | |
| machado | *epiʧi; *ʧipaala | |
| madeira | *anda; *-mɨna | |
| mama | *-iini | |
| mão | *kʰapɨ; *-wahku | *kaapi |
| marido | *iini-li | |
| marimbondo | *piitʰairu | |
| martim-pescador | *jali-ru | |
| matar | *maanalii | |
| matrinxã | *mamu-li | |
| mel | *maba | |
| milho | *marikɨ; *mariki | *kaanhai |
| molhado | *isa- | |
| montanha | *hiipa- | |
| morcego | *piiʦi-li | |
| morrer | *maanalii | |
| mosquito | *hainiju | |
| mulher | *ʧ-ɨna-(ru) | *-iina{-ru} |
| mutum | *kuiʧi | |
| nariz | *hɨtaku | |
| noite | *ndaipi; *ndai(a)pi | |
| nuvem | *iiʦa | |
| olho | *uke; *ukɨ | *i-dhui |
| onça | *manɨ-tʲi | *jawi |
| orelha | *hainaku | |
| osso | *(n)apɨ | |
| outro | *ba | |
| ouvir | *kema | |
| ovo | *eewhe | |
| paca | *pʰɨkɨlɨ; *lapa | |
| pai | *hani-li | |
| pajé | *mali- | |
| papagaio | *koliko-li; *waaru | |
| pássaro | *kudɨ- | |
| pato | *kuumanda | |
| paxiúba | *puupa | |
| pé | *kɨhti | *hiʔipa |
| pedra | *kʰiba | *hiipa; *hiipahɨ |
| peito | *tiku | |
| peixe | *hima | |
| pele | *mada | |
| pelo | *si; *-iti | *-ʧii |
| pena | *pʰai | |
| peneira | *dupiʧi | |
| pênis | *iiʦipɨ | |
| periquito | *keɻike-li | |
| perna | *kɨhti | |
| pescoço | *ʧano | *iiʦipɨ |
| pessoa | *winaiwi-ki | |
| pimenta | *haʧɨ(dɨ); *aʧɨdɨ | *haʦi; *aʦi |
| piolho | *nih | |
| piranha | *umai | |
| pium | *maapii-li | |
| plantar | *-aapana | |
| pomba | *hutuku-li | |
| pombo | *huliitu | |
| porco-do-mato | *haapiʤa- | |
| preto | *kʰuere | |
| pulga | *iiʦito; *iiʦi-tu | |
| pupunha | *piipi- | |
| quati | *kʰahpedi | *kapɨʦi |
| rabo | *iiʦipɨ | |
| raia | *inatu-li | |
| raiz | *pale; *ata-pa-le | *-aʔapali |
| raposa | *kema | |
| rato | *hii-li | |
| remédio | *taape; *tapee | |
| rosto | *-eekua | |
| sal | *idɨwɨ | *hiiwi |
| sangue | *iʔira-na | |
| saracura | *kuuʧa | |
| semente | *aki | *iinda |
| sogro | *kuhko | |
| sol | *kamui; *kamɨ- | *kamu-i |
| surubi | *kuli-li | |
| tabaco | *ʤaɨ-ri | *jeema |
| tamanduá-mirim | *muundu-ʦi | |
| tartaruga | *haara; *(h)iiku-li | |
| tateto | *jamu | |
| tatu | *kaʃa | *jaʔi |
| temer | *pɨnka | |
| terra | *kɨpa-ʧi | *hiipa-(h)ɨ |
| tio | *kuhko | *kʰui-lɨ |
| trovão | *eeno | |
| um | *ba | |
| umbigo | *-he(ʔ)pure; *-heʔepu- | |
| urucum | *pʰɨːli | |
| veado | *inatu-li; *nee-ri | |
| verde | *aapana | |
| vermelho | *kɨra | *kiira |
| vespa | *hanɨ | |
| vila | *jakalee |
Proto-Arawak pronimal system:[2]
| person | singular | plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | *nu-/*ni-/*no- | *wi/*wa- |
| 2 | *pɨ- | *hi- |
| 3 | *ri-; *tʰu | *ra-/*na- |
Grammatical morphemes:[2]
| Portuguese gloss | Proto-Arawak |
|---|---|
| absoluto | *-ʧi |
| causativo | *-ta; *a- |
| classificador (longo, flexível) | *-pi |
| classificador (semente) | *-ki |
| dativo | *-kɨ |
| existencial/progressivo | *-ena |
| feminino | *-ru |
| interrogativo | *-ka |
| locativo/direcional | *-kɨ |
| negativo | *-ʧɨ |
| negativo/privativo | *ma- |
| passado | *-pe |
| possessivo | *-ne, *-re, *-te |
| privativo | *ma- |
| reflexivo | *-wa |
| voz passiva | *-ka |
| verbalizador | *-d |