This appendix provides lists of Proto-Semitic stems from various sources.
The following Proto-Semitic reconstructions have been compiled by Leonid Kogan (2012)[1] from Fronzaroli's Proto-Semitic reconstructions,[2] the Semitic Etymological Dictionary (SED) by Alexander Militarev and Leonid Kogan, and other sources.
| Proto-Semitic | English gloss | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| *ʔarṣ̂- | earth, land | |
| *ḳarḳar- | earth (ground) | as a solid surface (ground) |
| *ʕapar- | earth (soft) | soft surface of the earth used for cultivation
and as a building material (soil, dust) |
| *abn- | stone | |
| *ṯ̣Vrr- | flint | |
| *kVrm- | hill, mound | |
| *ŝadaw- | open country | |
| *mā̆y- | water | |
| *nah(a)r- | river | |
| *pal(a)g- | stream | |
| *naḫl- | river valley, wadi | |
| *tihām(-at)- | sea | |
| *biʔr- / *buʔr(-at)- | spring | |
| *šamā̆y- | heaven | |
| *ŝamš- | sun | |
| *war(i)ḫ- | moon | |
| *kabkab- | star | |
| *ḏVnVm-, *ḏVnVn- | rain | |
| *bar(a)ḳ- | lightning | |
| *ṯalg- | snow | |
| *ʔiš(-āt)- | fire | |
| *pVḥm- | charcoal | |
| *šḫn | warm, hot | |
| *n-w-r | to shine | |
| *ṯ̣ill- | shadow | |
| *d-h-m, *ṯ̣-l-m | darkness | |
| *yawm- | day | |
| *šaḥ(a)r | dawn, morning | |
| *šan-at- | year | |
| *yamīn-, *yamā̆n- | right hand (side) | |
| *ŝamʔāl- | left hand (side) | |
| *w-r-ḳ | yellow-green | |
| *ṯ̣-l-m | to be black | |
| *l-b-n | white | |
| *ṣ-h-b | light-brown hue | |
| *ʕiṣ̂- | tree | |
| *ḳayŝ- | wood, forest | |
| *daṯʔ- | grass | |
| *ŝVrš- | root | |
| *ḏarʕ- | seed | |
| *šu(n)bul-at- | ear of corn | |
| *dardar- | thistle | |
| *ʔašal | rush | |
| *ḳanay- | cane, reed | |
| *ḥVlp(-at)- | alfa grass | Stipa tenacissima |
| *pVḳVʕ- | colocynth | |
| *ʔVṯl- | tamarisk | |
| *ṭarpaʔ- | tamarisk | |
| *bay(a)n- | tamarisk | |
| *buṭm(-at)- | terebinth | |
| *burāṯ- | juniper | |
| *ʔayl(-ān)-, *ʔall(-ān)- | big tree, oak | |
| *ʔaṭad- | buckthorn | |
| *ḫilāp- | willow | |
| *kamʔ-at- | truffle, kind of mushroom | |
| *bVḳl- | cultivated plant, cereal | |
| *ḥinṭ-at- | wheat | |
| *duḫn- | millet | |
| *ṯūm- | garlic | |
| *karaṯ- | leek | |
| *ḳVṯ(ṯ)Vʔ- | cucumber | |
| *ḫass- | lettuce | |
| *ṯaḳid-, *ṯiḳd- | almond (tree and fruit) | |
| *taʔin(-at)- | fig | |
| *ḫāḫ- | plum tree | |
| *ṯawr- | bull, ox | |
| *ʔalp- | bull | |
| *bVʕVr- | bull | |
| *laʔay-at-, *layʔ-at- | cow | |
| *ʔarḫ- | cow, heifer | |
| *parr(-at)- | (young of) large cattle ? | |
| *ṣ̂aʔn- | small cattle | |
| *ṯaʔ(w)-at- | ewe (individual) | |
| *ʔimmar- | ram | |
| *ḫVrVp- | lamb | |
| *ʕanz-, *ʕinz- | goat | |
| *tayš | billy goat | |
| *ʕat(t)ūd- | billy goat | |
| *ʕVnVḳ- | kid | |
| *lV(ʔ)lV(ʔ)- | kid, lamb | |
| *ḥimār- | donkey | |
| *ʔatān- | donkey mare | |
| *muhr- | foal | |
| *pVrd- | mule | |
| *baḳl-, *baγl- | mule | |
| *kawdan- | mule | |
| *ḫV(n)zīr- | pig | Albright comments the definition "swine" is not the correct sense of Ug. hnzr.[3] May be a military title, functionary, helper. Cho concludes Ugaritic hnzr is probably a polysemic animal term for a military rank. |
| *kalb- | dog | |
| *labVʔ- | lion | |
| *namir- | leopard | |
| *ḏiʔb- | wolf | |
| *ṯVʕVl-, *ṯaʕlab- | fox | |
| *ṣ̂VbVʕ- | hyena | |
| *ʔanyaṣ-, *ʔanṣaw- | weasel | |
| *ṯ̣aby(-at)- | gazelle | |
| *ʔayyal- | fallow deer | |
| *riʕm- | wild bull | Bos primigenius |
| *γVzāl- | gazelle | |
| *bVb(b)- | gazelle | |
| *ʔarwiy- | gazelle | |
| *par(a)ʔ- | wild ass | |
| *paʔr- | mouse | |
| *ʕakbar- | mouse | |
| *yarbVʕ- | jerboa | |
| *ʔarnab(-at)- | hare | |
| *pīl-, *pīr- | elephant | non-Semitic source |
| *γārib-, *γurā̆b- | crow, raven | |
| *laḳlaḳ- | stork | |
| *sVnūn(Vw)-at- | swallow | |
| *ḥVrb- | chameleon | |
| *ʕVṯ̣āy- | gecko | |
| *pVṣγ- | gecko | |
| *ḥVmṭ- | lizard | |
| *waran/l- | lizard | |
| *raḳḳ- | turtle | |
| *šalaḥpaw/y-, *šalapḥaw/y | turtle | |
| *nūb(-at)- | bee | |
| *ḏVb(V)b- | fly | |
| *baḳḳ- | gnat | |
| *pVrγVṯ- | flea | |
| *nāb-, *nib(b)- | nit | |
| *sā/ūs- | moth | |
| *ʕVṯ(V)ṯ- | moth | |
| *ʔarbay- | locust | |
| *ḥargal- | locust | |
| *ṣarṣar-, *ṣarṣūr- | cricket | |
| *ḥVsVn- | harmful winged insect | |
| *ʕankab- | spider | |
| *tawliʕ-at- | worm | |
| *ʕalaḳ-at- | leech | |
| *dam- | blood | |
| *ʕaṯ̣m- | bone | |
| *gīd- | tendon, sinew | |
| *matn- | sinew, tendon; hip, loins, small of the back | |
| *kVrm-, kVm- | articulation, joint | |
| *ŝaḥm- | fat | |
| *lVpʔ- | piece of flesh peeled off from the bone | |
| *mašk- | skin | |
| *parr-, *parw- | fur, skin | |
| *kišād- | neck | |
| *ṣawar- | neck | |
| *ʕVnḳ- | neck | |
| *ḥVlḳ- | throat | |
| *šaḫ(a)y(-at)- | armpit | |
| *ṣ̂ilaʕ- | rib | |
| *tVlVʕ- | female breast | |
| *ṣ̂Vrʕ- | female breast | |
| *ṯ̣ahr- | back | |
| *kVsl- | genitals, lower part of trunk | |
| *rVby- | crotch, groin | |
| *kapl- | crotch, groin | |
| *ṯVn(n)- | lower part of the belly, the pubes | |
| *ḳinn- | buttocks, anus | |
| *libb- | heart | |
| *kabid- | liver | |
| *kVly-at- | kidney | |
| *kariŝ- | stomach | |
| *mVʕVy- | intestines, entrails | |
| *mVr(V)r-at- | gall, gall bladder | |
| *ṭiḥāl-, *ṭVlḥ īm- | spleen | |
| *ʔVšk- | testicle | |
| *bVnṯ̣ur- | female genitals | |
| *ṯapr- | vulva | |
| *γurlat- | foreskin | |
| *paḥl- | penis | |
| *raḥim- | womb | |
| *šily-at- | afterbirth | |
| *raʔš- | head | |
| *gVlgVl-at- | skull | |
| *nakap-at- | temple | |
| *pVʔ-at- | front | |
| *muḫḫ- | brain, marrow | |
| *pan(ay)- | face | |
| *ʕayn- | eye | |
| *ʔuḏn- | ear | |
| *ḥasīs- | ear | |
| *ʔanp- | nose | |
| *ḫVṭm- | nose | |
| *pay-, *paw- | mouth | |
| *ŝap-at- | lip | |
| *lVḥy-at- | cheek, jaw | |
| *laṯaγ- | gum | |
| *dVrdVr- | gum | |
| *ḥVnVk- | palate | |
| *lišān- | tongue | |
| *šinn- | tooth | |
| *ṣ̂irš- | molar | |
| *ŝaʕr- | hair | |
| *ŝVpat- | hair (type of) | |
| *parʕ- | hair (type of) | |
| *γapar- | hair (type of) | |
| *ḏaḳan- | beard | not in East Semitic |
| *yad- | hand | |
| *kapp- | palm | |
| *ḥupn- | hollow of the hand | |
| *bVhVn- | thumb | |
| *ṯ̣ipr- | nail, claw | |
| *ʔamm-at- | elbow, forearm | |
| *katip- | shoulder | |
| *paʕm- | foot | |
| *rigl- | foot | |
| *ʕaḳib- | heel | |
| *kursVʕ- | lower leg | |
| *ḳVṣVl- | ankle | |
| *ḳVṣVl- | knee | |
| *warik- | hip, thigh | |
| *ḳarn- | horn | |
| *ḏanab- | tail | |
| *kanap- | wing | |
| *ḳVb-at- | animal's stomach | |
| *kurāʕ- | animal's shin or leg | |
| *nāṣiy-at- | plumage, feathers | |
| *dVmʕ-at- | tears | |
| *ḏVʕ-at- | sweat | |
| *ḥim-at- | venom, spittle | |
| *ṯyn | to urinate | |
| *parṯ- | non-digested food in the stomach | |
| *kVbVw- | excrement, dung | |
| *zibl- | excrement, dung | |
| *napš- | soul | |
| *n-y-k | sexual intercourse | |
| *r-k-b | to ride, to mount | |
| *h-r-y | to be pregnant | |
| *w-l-d | to give birth | |
| *ḫ-r-š | to be in childbed | |
| *y-n-ḳ | to suck | |
| *š-k-b | to lie down | |
| *layliy- | night | |
| *šin-at- | sleep | |
| *m-r-ṣ̂ | to be ill | |
| *ḥ-b-ṭ | to swell, inflate | |
| *ŝayb-at-, *ŝīb-at- | grey hair | |
| *ṭ-m-m, *ʔ-ṭ-m | to be deaf and dumb | |
| *š-ʕ-l | to cough | |
| *ḳ-y-ʔ | to vomit, belch | |
| *g-ŝ-ʕ | to vomit, belch | |
| *ṣ̂-r-ṭ | to fart | |
| *p-š-w | to fart | |
| *ḥ-m-r | to have indigestion | |
| *š-g-ʕ, *ŝ-g-ʕ | mental illness | |
| *ḏ-b-b | mental illness | |
| *h-ḏ-y | mental illness | |
| *m-w-t | to die | |
| *ḳ-b-r | to bury | |
| *ʔanṯ-at- | woman | |
| *marʔ- | man, male | |
| *ḏakar- | male | |
| *ʔab- | father | |
| *ʔimm- | mother | |
| *ʔaḫ-, *ʔaḫ-āt- | brother, sister | |
| *bin- | son | |
| *bin-at- | daughter | |
| *bVkVr- | first-born son | |
| *ʔanṯ-at- | wife | |
| *mut- | husband | |
| *ḥam- | father-in-law | |
| *ḥamāt- | mother-in-law | |
| *kall-at- | daughter-in-law, bride | |
| *ḫatan- | son-in-law, groom | |
| *ʔalman-at- | widow | |
| *baʕl- | owner, lord | |
| *ʔam-at- | maidservant | |
| *ŝ-b-ʕ | to be sated | |
| *ṯ̣-m-ʔ | to be thirsty | |
| *ʔ-k-l | eating | |
| *š-t-y | drinking | |
| *ṭ-ʕ-m | to taste, to be tasty | |
| *m-r-r | bitterness | |
| *m-ṭ-ḳ, *m-t-ḳ | sweetness | |
| *ḥ-m-ṣ̂ | to be sour | |
| *š-ʔ-b | to draw water | |
| *d-l-w | drawing water with a bucket | |
| *š-ḳ-y | to provide enough water | |
| *ḫimʔ-at- | clarified butter | |
| *laš(a)d- | butter, cream | |
| *šamn- | fat | |
| *dibš- | honey | |
| *šikar- | alcoholic drink | |
| *š-k-r | to become inebriated | |
| *ṭ-ḥ-n | to grind | |
| *n-p-y | sieve, sieving | |
| *n-ḫ-l | sieve, sieving | |
| *ḳamḥ- | flour | |
| *l-w-š | kneading | |
| *ʔ-p-y | to bake | |
| *š-l-ḳ | to boil, cook | |
| *b-š-l | to be cooked, ready, ripe |
This is a list of Proto-Semitic stems (triconsonantal roots and extensions) with their reflexes in several Semitic languages (i.e. actually-pronounced forms with vowels, as opposed to Semitic pure consonantal roots). Only stems attested in Akkadian, or with cognates in other Afroasiatic groups, can be confidently included in Proto-Semitic; others must be placed in West Semitic. There is some controversy in Semitic linguistics over the sibilants' pronunciation.
Proto-Semitic stems and their reflexes:
| English | PS | Akkadian | Arabic | Hebrew | Syriac | Ge'ez | Mehri | Phoenician |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| earth | *ʔarṣ́- | erṣet- | ʔarḍ- | ʔéreṣ | ʔarʕ-ā | ? | ʔāɮˤ | ʔarṣ |
| father | *ʔab- | ab- | ʔab- | ʔāḇ | ʔaḇ-ā | ʔab | ḥa-yb | ʔab,bu |
| god | *ʔil-(āh)- | il- | ʔilāh- | ʔēl-(ôh)- | ʔalāh-ā | - | - | ʔel-, ʔil-(ūh)- |
| grape/wine[4][5] | *wayn- | - | wayn- | yáyin ('wine') | - | wayn- | - | yen |
| house | *bayt- | bīt-, bēt- | bayt- | báyiṯ, bêṯ | bayt-ā | bet | beyt, bêt | bet, bit |
| lord | *baʕl- | bēl- | baʕl- | báʕal | baʕl-ā | baʕāl | bâl | baʕl |
| king | *malik- | mal(i)k- (> "prince") | malik- | méleḵ | malk-ā | - | - | malk, milk |
| milk | *x̣alīb- | ḫilp- | ḥalīb-, ḥalab- | ḥālāḇ | ḥalḇ-ā | ḥalīb | - | ḥaleb |
| name | *šim- | šum- | ism- | šēm | šm-ā | sim | ham | šēm |
| peace | *šalām- | šalām- | salām- | šālôm | šlām-ā | salām | səlōm | šolūm, šolēm |
| sun | *śamš- | šamš- | šams- | šémeš | šemš-ā | - | - | šamš |
| tree | *ʕiṣ́- | iṣ-, iṣṣ- | ʕiḍ-at- | ʕēṣ | - | ʕiṣ | ʔaʕā | ʕiṣ |
| water | *māy- | mû | mā’- | máyim | mayy-ā | māy | ḥə-mō | mem, meym, may |
| English | PS | Akkadian | Arabic | Hebrew | Syriac | Ge'ez | Mehri | Phoenician |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| blood | *dam- | dam- | dam-, dimā'- | dām | dm-ā | dam | dam ('pus') | dom |
| eye | *ʕayn- | īn- | ʕayn- | ʕáyin | ʕayn-ā | ʕayn | ʔāyn | ʕeyn,ʕen |
| ear | *'uðn- | uzn- | ʔuḏun-, ʔuḏn | ʔṓzen | ʔeḏn-ā | |||
| hand | *yad- | id- | yad- | yāḏ | ʔīḏ-ā | ʔid | ḥayd | yad, yid, id |
| heart | *lib(a)b- | libb- | lubb- | lēḇ(āḇ) | lebb-ā | libb | ḥa-wbēb | libb |
| tongue | *lišān-/*lašān- | lišān- | lisān- | lāšôn | leššān-ā | lissān | əwšēn | lošūn, lašūn,lšūn |
| tooth | *šinn- | šinn- | sinn- | šēn | šenn-ā | śinn* | - | šinn- |
| English | PS | Akkadian | Arabic | Hebrew | Syriac | Geez | Mehri | Phoenician |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| bull | *ṯawr- | šūr- | ṯawr- | šôr (> "ox") | tawr-ā | sōr | - | šūr |
| camel | *gamal- | gammal- (gaml-) | ǧamal (jimal / gamal)- | gāmāl | gaml-ā | gimel | gəmmōl | gemāl, gamāl |
| dog | *kalb- | kalb- | kalb- | kéleḇ | kalb-ā | kalb | kōb | kalb |
| ewe | *raḫil- | laḫr- | riḫl(at)- | rāḫēl | - | - | - | - |
This is a list of cognates for which no Akkadian cognate is known or attested.
| English | PWS | Arabic | Hebrew | Syriac | Geez | Mehri | Phoenician |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| holiness | *ḳudš- | quds- | qṓḏeš | quḏš-ā | qiddūs | - | quddoš,qudš |
| son | *bn- | bn- | bēn | br-ā | - | bər, ḥə-brē | bin |
| wasp | *dVb(V)r- | dabr-, dibr- | dəḇôrāh (> "bee") | debbōr-ā, debbor-t-ā | - | - | dobrot |
| yogurt | *laban- | laban- (> "milk") | lāḇān ("white") | - | - | lbōn | labūn |
The initial /i/ in "ibn" is dropped or dilated when the word is not opening the speech in standard Arabic, and several spoken varieties, such as Najdi.