This is a Swadesh list of Sinitic languages, specifically Mandarin, Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien, Eastern Min, Wu and Xiang, compared with that of English. Sinitic languages are alternatively known as Chinese dialects.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
| Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 |
|---|---|---|
| 1-91 | 92-146 | 147-207 |
The following varieties that are referenced are listed below. Please refer to their respective pages for more information.
| № | English | Mandarin 普通話／普通话 (pǔtōnghuà) edit (207) | Mandarin 四川話／四川话 (Sìchuānhuà) edit (207) | Mandarin 南京話／南京话 (Nánjīnghuà) edit (207) | Cantonese 廣州話／广州话 (gwong2 zau1 waa6-2) edit (207) | Hakka 粵台客家話／粤台客家话 edit (207) | Hokkien 閩南語／闽南语 edit (207) | Eastern Min 閩東語／闽东语 (mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄) edit (207) | Wu 上海閒話／上海闲话 edit (207) | Wu 蘇州閒話／苏州闲话 edit (207) | Xiang 長沙話／长沙话 edit (207) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 92 | to drink | 喝 (hē) | 喝 (ho1) | 吃 (chr5), 喝 (ho5) | 飲／饮 (jam2) | 啉 (lîm) | 啉 (lim) | 啜 | 喝 (haq7), 吃 (chiq7) | 呷 (haeq7), 吃 (chiq7) | 吃 |
| 93 | to eat | 吃 (chī) | 吃 (ci2) | 吃 (chr5) | 食 (sik6) | 食 (sṳ̍t) | 食 (chia̍h) | 食 | 吃 (chiq7) | 吃 (chiq7) | 吃 |
| 94 | to bite | 咬 (yǎo) | 咬 (ngao3) | 咬 (iao3) | 咬 (ngaau5) | 咬 (ngâu) | 咬 (kā) | 咬 | 咬 (ngau6) | 咬 (ngau6) | 咬 |
| 95 | to suck | 吸 (xī)*, 啜 (chuò)*, 吮吸 (shǔnxī)* | ] | 吸 (xi5), 嗍 (sho5) | 吸 (kap1), 啜 (zyut3) | 吮 (chhiôn) | 吸 (khip)*, (empty) (chi̍p)*, 吸 (suh)* | 吸, 噈 | 嗍 (soq7), 吸 (shiq7) | 嗍 (soq7) | 嗍, 津 |
| 96 | to spit | 吐 (tǔ)*, 吐口水 (tǔ kǒushuǐ)*, 吐痰 (tǔtán)* | 吐 (tu3) | 吐 (tu3) | 𦧲 (loe1), 吐 (tou3, tu1) | 哯／𠯟 (lién) | 呸 (phùi)*, 呸瀾／呸澜 (phùi-nōa)*, 呸嘴瀾／呸嘴澜 (phùi-chhùi-nōa)*, 呸痰 (phùi-thâm)* | 啡, 吐 | 吐 (thu5) | 吐 (thou3) | 吐 |
| 97 | to vomit | 嘔／呕 (ǒu)*, 吐 (tù)*, 嘔吐／呕吐 (ǒutù)* | 吐 (tu3) | 吐 (tu4) | 嘔／呕 (au2) | 嘔／呕 (éu), 翻 (phôn) | 嘔／呕 (áu)*, 吐 (thò͘)*, 嘔吐／呕吐 (áu-thò͘)* | 哊 (áe̤h→é̤h) | 嘔／呕 (eu5) | 嘔／呕 (eu3) | 嘔／呕 |
| 98 | to blow | 吹 (chuī) | 吹 (cui1) | 吹 (chuei1) | 吹 (ceoi1) | 吹 (chhôi), 歕／𬅫 (pùn) | 吹 (chhe), 歕／𬅫 (pûn) | 吹 (chuŏi), 㖹 | 吹 (tshy1) | 吹 (tshyu1) | 嗍 |
| 99 | to breathe | 呼吸 (hūxī) | 呼吸 (fu1 xi1) | 呼吸 (hu1 xi5) | 敨氣／敨气 (tau2 hei3), 呼吸 (fu1 kap1) | 敨氣／敨气 (théu-hì) | 呼吸 (ho͘-khip)*, 喘氣／喘气 (chhóan-khùi) | 呼吸 (hù-ngék) | 呼吸 (hu1 shiq7) | 呼吸 (hou1 shiq7) | ] |
| 100 | to laugh | 笑 (xiào) | 笑 (xiao4) | 笑 (siao4) | 笑 (siu3) | 笑 (seu) | 笑 (chhiò) | 笑 (chiéu) | 笑 (shiau5) | 笑 (siau5) | 笑 (siau4) |
| 101 | to see | 看 (kàn) | 看 (kan4) | 看 (kang4) | 見／见 (gin3), 睇 (tai2) | 看 (khon) | 看 (khòaⁿ) | 覷／觑 (ché̤ṳ) | 看 (khoe5) | 看 (khoe5) | 看 |
| 102 | to hear | 聼 (tīng) | 聽／听 (tin1) | 聽／听 (tin1) | 聽／听 (teng1) | 聽／听 (thâng) | 聽／听 (thiaⁿ) | 聽／听 | 聽／听 (thin1) | 聽／听 (thin3) | 聽／听 (tin1) |
| 103 | to know | 知道 (zhīdào), 曉得／晓得 (xiǎode), 認識／认识 (rènshi)* | 知道 (zi1 dao4), 曉得／晓得 (xiao3 de2) | 曉得／晓得 (xao3 dä5), 知道 (zhr1 dao4) | 知 (zi1), 知道 (zi1 dou3) | 知 (tî), 知得 (tî tet) | 知 (chai), 知影 (chai-iáⁿ), 捌 (pat)* | 仈 (báik) | 曉得／晓得 (shiau5 teq7) | 曉得／晓得 (shiau3 teq7) | 曉得／晓得 (xiau3 de) |
| 104 | to think | 想 (xiǎng) | 想 (xiang3) | 想 (siang3) | 諗／谂 (nam2) | 想 (sióng) | 想 (siūⁿ) | 想 (siōng) | 想 (shian5) | 想 (sian3) | 想 (sian3) |
| 105 | to smell | 嗅 (xiù), 聞／闻 (wén) | 聞／闻 (wen2) | 聞／闻 (uen2) | 聞／闻 (man4) | 鼻 (phi) | 鼻 (phīⁿ) | 齅 (bê) | 聞／闻 (men6) | 聞／闻 (men2) | 聞／闻 |
| 106 | to fear | 怕 (pà) | 怕 (pa4) | 嚇怕／吓怕 (hä5 pa4) | 驚／惊 (geng1), 怕 (paa3) | 驚／惊 (kiâng) | 驚／惊 (kiaⁿ) | 驚／惊 | 怕 (pho5), 嚇／吓 (haq7) | 怕 (pho5), 嚇／吓 (haeq7) | 畏怯 (uei4 qie6), 怕 (pa4) |
| 107 | to sleep | 睡 (shuì), 睡覺／睡觉 (shuìjiào) | 睡瞌睡 (sui4 ko2 sui4) | 睡 (shuei4) | 瞓／𰥛 (fan3), 瞓覺／𰥛觉 (fan3 gaau3) | 睡目 (soi-muk) | 睏／困 (khùn) | 睏／困 (káung) | 睏／困 (khuen5) | 睏／困 (khuen5) | 睏覺／困觉 (kun4 gau4), 睏／困 (kun4) |
| 108 | to live | 活 (huó) | 活 (ho2) | 活 (ho5) | 生 (saang1) | 生 (sâng) | 活 (o̍ah) | 住 | 活 (weq8) | 活 (weq8) | 活 (ho6) |
| 109 | to die | 死 (sǐ) | 死 (si3) | 死 (sy3) | 死 (sei2) | 死 (sí) | 死 (sí) | 死 | 死 (shi5) | 死 (si3) | 死 (sr3) |
| 110 | to kill | 殺／杀 (shā) | 殺／杀 (sa2) | 殺／杀 (sha5) | 殺／杀 (saat3) | 㓾 (chhṳ̀) | 刣 (thâi) | 刣 (tài) | 殺／杀 (saq7) | 殺／杀 (saeq7) | 殺／杀 (sa6) |
| 111 | to fight | 吵架 (chǎojià)*, 打架 (dǎjià)*, 打仗 (dǎzhàng)* | 吵架 (cao3 jia4), 角逆 (go2 nyie2) | 打架 (da3 ja4) | 爭／争 (zaang1) | 相打 (siông-tá) | 冤家 (oan-ke)*, 相拍 (sio-phah)*, 相刣 (sio-thâi)* | 相拍 (siŏng-*páh) | 打相打 (tan5 shian1 tan5) | 相打 (sian1 tan3), 打相打 (tan3 sian1 tan3) | 扯皮 (che3 bi2) |
| 112 | to hunt | 打獵／打猎 (dǎliè) | ] | 打獵／打猎 (da3 lie4) | 打獵／打猎 (daa2 lip6) | 打獵／打猎 (tá-lia̍p) | 拍獵／拍猎 (phah-la̍h) | 討／讨 (tō̤) | 打獵／打猎 (tan5 laq8) | 打獵／打猎 (tan3 laeq8) | 趕山／赶山 (gan3 san1) |
| 113 | to hit | 打 (dǎ) | 打 (da3) | 揍 (zou4) | 打 (daa2) | 打 (tá) | 拍 (phah) | 拍 (páh) | 打 (tan5)*, 敲 (khau1)* | 打 (tan3), 敲 (khau1) | 打 (da3) |
| 114 | to cut | 割 (gē)*, 切 (qiē)*, 剪 (jiǎn)* | ] | 切 (cie5) | 切 (cit3), 剪 (zin2) | 割 (kot) | 割 (koah)*, 切 (chhiat)*, 鉸／铰 (ka)* | 砍, 削 (siók) | 劗／𭄛 (tse1), 切 (chiq7), 剪 (ci5)* | 斬／斩 (tse1), 剪 (tsie3)* | 割 |
| 115 | to split | 劈開／劈开 (pīkāi)*, 裂開／裂开 (lièkāi)*, 分開／分开 (fēnkāi)* | ] | 劈開／劈开 (pi5 kä1) | 分開／分开 (fan1 hoi1) | 擘開／擘开 (pak-khôi) | 破開／破开, 剖開／剖开 (phòa-khui)*, 裂開／裂开 (liʔ²¹ kʰui⁵⁵)*, 分開／分开 (hun-khui)* | 分 | 分 (fen1) | 分 (fen1) | 劈 |
| 116 | to stab | 刺 (cì) | ] | 戳 (cho5) | 插 (caap3), 捅 (tung2) | 刺 (chhiuk) | 刺 (chhì), 剸／𰄞 (chân), 突 (tu̍h) | ？ | 戳 (tshoq7), 鑿／凿 (zoq8) | 戳 (tshoq7) | ] |
| 117 | to scratch | 搔 (sāo), 抓 (zhuā) | 摳／抠 (kou1) | 刮 (gua5) | 刮 (gwaat3), 𢯎 (ngaau1), 搲 (we2) | 挖 (yet) | 扒 (pê) | 扒 (bà) | 抓 (tsau1) | 抓 (tsau1) | ] |
| 118 | to dig | 挖 (wā), 掘 (jué) | 挖 (wa1) | 挖 (ua5) | 掘 (gwat6) | 挖 (yet) | 挖 (ó͘, óe, iah), 窌 (liú), 掘 (ku̍t) | 挖 (uă) | 挖 (uaq7) | 挖 (uaeq7) | 挖 |
| 119 | to swim | 游泳 (yóuyǒng) | 游泳 (you2 yun4) | 划水 (hua2 shuei3), 游泳 (iou2 iong4) | 游水 (jau4 seoi2) | 泅水 (tsiù-súi) | 泅水 (siû-chúi) | 泅 (siù) | 游泳 (yeu6 ion5) | 游泳 (yeu2 ion3) | 玩水 (uan2 xyei3) |
| 120 | to fly | 飛／飞 (fēi) | 飛／飞 (fei1) | 飛／飞 (fei1) | 飛／飞 (fei1) | 飛／飞 (pî) | 飛／飞 (pe) | 飛／飞 | 飛／飞 (fi1) | 飛／飞 (fi1) | ] |
| 121 | to walk | 走 (zǒu)*, 走路 (zǒulù)*, 步行 (bùxíng)* | 走 (zou3) | 走 (zou3) | 行 (haang4) | 行 (hàng) | 行 (kiâⁿ)*, 行路 (kiâⁿ-lō͘)*, 步行 (pō͘-hêng)*, 步行 (pō͘-kiâⁿ)*, 步輦／步辇 (pō͘-lián)* | 行 | 走 (tseu5) | 走 (tseu3) | 走 (zou3), 跑 (pau3) |
| 122 | to come | 來／来 (lái) | 來／来 (nai2) | 來／来 (lä2) | 嚟 (lai4) | 來／来 (loi2) | 來／来 (lâi) | 來／来 | 來／来 (le6) | 來／来 (le2) | 來／来 (lai2) |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | 躺 (tǎng) | 躺 (tang3) | 躺 (tang3), 睡 (shuei4) | 瞓／𰥛 (fan3) | 睡 (soi4) | 倒 (tó)* | 倒 | 睏／困 (khuen5), 躺 (thaon5) | 躺 (thaon3), 橫／横 (wan2) | 睏／困 (kun4) |
| 124 | to sit | 坐 (zuò) | 坐 (zo4) | 坐 (zo4) | 坐 (co5) | 坐 (chhô) | 坐 (chē) | 坐 | 坐 (zu6) | 坐 (zou6) | 坐 |
| 125 | to stand | 站 (zhàn) | 站 (zan4) | 站 (zhang4) | 企 (kei5) | 徛 (kî) | 站 (chām)*, 徛, 企 (khiā) | 徛 (kiê) | 立 (liq8) | 立 (liq8) | 徛 (ji5) |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | 轉／转 (zhuǎn)* | 拐 (guai3) | 轉／转 (zhuang4) | 轉／转 (zyun3) | 轉／转 (chón) | 斡 (oat)* | 轉／转 | 轉／转 (tsoe5) | 轉／转 (tsoe5) | ] |
| 127 | to fall | 落下 (luòxià)*, 掉下 (diàoxià)* | 掉 (diao4) | 落 (lo5), 掉 (diao4) | 跌 (dit3) | 跌 (tiet) | 落落 (lak-lo̍h) | 逿／𰺲 (dâung) | 落 (loq8) | 落 (loq8) | 跌 |
| 128 | to give | 給／给 (gěi) | 給／给 (ge1) | 給／给 (gi3) | 畀 (bei2) | 分 (pûn) | 予, 互, 給／给 (hō͘) | 乞 (ké̤ṳk) | 撥／拨, 畀 (peq7) | 撥／拨 (peq7) | 把 (ba3) |
| 129 | to hold | 握 (wò), 拿 (ná) | 拿 (na2) | 拿 (la2) | 揸 (zaa1) | 擎 (khià) | 提 (the̍h) | 掏 (dò̤) | 拿 (ne1/nau1/no1/no6) | 拿 (no2) | 拿 |
| 130 | to squeeze | 擠／挤 (jǐ) | 擠／挤 (ji1) | 擠／挤 (zi3) | 挾／挟 (gep6) | 撚 (ngién) | 𢯰 (lu̍t) | 攝／摄 | 捘 (tsen5), 擠／挤 (ci3) | 捘 (tsen3) | 擠／挤 |
| 131 | to rub | 揉 (róu)* | 挼 (rua2) | 柔 (rou2) | 擦 (caat3), 捽 (zeot1) | 捽 (chhu̍t) | 㨎 (loán) | 磨 | 擼／撸 (lu1) | 婆 (bu2), 挪 (nou2) | 砑 |
| 132 | to wash | 洗 (xǐ) | 洗 (xi3) | 洗 (si3) | 洗 (sai2) | 洗 (sé) | 洗 (sóe) | 洗 (sā̤) | 汏 (da6) | 汏 (da6) | 洗 (si3) |
| 133 | to wipe | 擦 (cā) | 擦 (ca2), 揩 (kai1) | 㩢 (ma5), 擦 (ca5), 揩 (kä1) | 抹 (maat3) | 捽 (chhu̍t) | 拭 (chhit) | 拭 (chék) | 揩 (kha1) | 揩 (kha1) | 湊／凑, 抹, 揩 |
| 134 | to pull | 拉 (lā) | 扯 (ce3) | 拉 (la1) | 拉 (laai1), 掹 (mang1) | 挷 (pâng) | 扭 (khiú, giú) | 牽／牵 | 拉 (la1) | 拉 (la1) | 扯 (che3) |
| 135 | to push | 推 (tuī) | 㩳／㧐 (song3) | 推 (tuei1) | 推 (teoi1), 擁／拥 (ung2) | 𢱤 (súng) | 拺 (sak) | 捵 (tiāng) | 推 (the1) | 推 (the1) | 推 (tei1) |
| 136 | to throw | 扔 (rēng), 丟／丢 (diū) | 甩 (suai3) | 掉 (diao4) | 抌 (dam2), 掉 (deu6) | 擲／掷 (te̍p) | 撣／掸 (tàn) | 扔 | 摜／掼 (gue6) | 摜／掼 (gue6) | 甩 (xyai3) |
| 137 | to tie | 綁／绑 (bǎng) | 綁／绑 (bang1), 捆 (kun3), 拴 (suan1) | 綁／绑 (bang3) | 綁／绑 (bong2) | 綁／绑 (póng) | 縛／缚 (pa̍k) | 縛／缚 (buŏh) | 縛／缚 (boq8) | 綁／绑 (paon3) | 捆 (kun3) |
| 138 | to sew | 縫／缝 (féng) | 縫／缝 (fong4) | 縫／缝 (fen2) | 聯／联 (lyun4) | 聯／联 (liòn) | 縫／缝 (pâng), 紩／𮉢 (thīⁿ) | 䋎／𬘜 (tiéng) | 縫／缝 (von6) | 縫／缝 (von2) | ] |
| 139 | to count | 數／数 (shǔ), 點／点 (diǎn) | 數／数 (su3) | 數／数 (su3) | 數／数 (sou2) | 算 (son) | 數／数 (siàu) | 數／数 | 數／数 (su5) | 數／数 (sou3) | 算噠／算哒 |
| 140 | to say | 說／说 (shuō), 講／讲 (jiǎng) | 說／说 (so2) | 說／说 (sho5), 講／讲 (jang3) | 講／讲 (gong2), 話／话 (waa6) | 講／讲 (kóng) | 講／讲 (kóŋ) | 講／讲 (gōng) | 講／讲 (kaon5) | 講／讲 (kaon3) | 講／讲 |
| 141 | to sing | 唱 (chàng) | 唱 (cang4) | 唱 (chang4) | 唱 (coeng3) | 唱 (chhong) | 唱 (chhiùⁿ) | 唱 (chióng) | 唱 (tshaon5) | 唱 (tshaon5) | 唱 (chan4) |
| 142 | to play | 玩 (wán) | 耍 (sua3) | 玩 (uang2) | 玩 (waan2) | 搞 (káu), 嫽 (liau) | 耍 (sńg), 跮踱, 𨑨迌 (chhit-thô)* | 客佻 (káh-dièu) | 孛相, 白相 (beq8 shian5) | 孛相, 白相 (beq8 sian5) | 玩 |
| 143 | to float | 浮 (fú) | 浮 (fu2) | 浮 (fu2) | 浮 (fau4) | 浮 (fù) | 浮 (phû) | 浮 | 浮 (veu6/vu6) | 浮 (vu2) | ] |
| 144 | to flow | 流 (liú) | 流 (niu2) | 流 (liou2) | 流 (lau4) | 流 (liù) | 流 (lâu) | 流 | 漂 (phiau1) | 漂 (phiau1) | ] |
| 145 | to freeze | 結冰／结冰 (jiébīng), 凍結／冻结 (dòngjié) | 結冰／结冰 (jie2 bin1) | 上凍／上冻 (shang4 dong4), 結冰／结冰 (je5 bin1), 凍冰／冻冰 (dong4 bin1) | 結冰／结冰 (git3 bing1) | 凍結／冻结 (tung-kiet) | 結冰／结冰 (kiat-peng) | 結冰／结冰 | 凍／冻 (ton5) | 凍／冻 (ton5) | 構凌 (gou4 lin5), 下凌 (xia5 lin5) |
| 146 | to swell | 膨脹／膨胀 (péngzhàng) | ] | 脹／胀 (zhang4) | 脹／胀 (zoeng3) | 腫／肿 (chúng) | 膨大 (phòng-tōa) | 腫／肿 (cṳ̄ng) | 脹／胀 (tsan5) | 脹／胀 (tsan5) | ] |
| Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 |
|---|---|---|
| 1-91 | 92-146 | 147-207 |