User:Burgundaz/Germanic world

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If you've ever wondered what it would be like to experience the world in ancient Germanic times, this page should help with the words side of things. Keep in mind, 2500 years is a long time; some of the Old Germanic languages are closer to us than they are Proto-Germanic, therefore meanings that are established in North and West Germanic might not be fully reconstructible to PGmc. This is especially relevant with regards to semantic narrowing, which could create new semantic gaps, triggering semantic shift, or even a chain of such shifts.

This page aspires to represent the Germanic world as accurately as possible in form and meaning. Therefore, not just comparative reconstruction is used as a tool, but internal reconstruction, and etymological clues are used as well.

Additionally, check out this page on Germanic names for plants and animals

For the various references to u/i-extensions/infixal derivation, see this section on u/i-abnormality in Germanic. If it was variation in just one branch, it wouldn't be an issue, but there is evidence of variation in all branches. The origin and exact meaning of the formation is ultimately unclear; it was probably grammaticalized from collectives in pre-Gmc/post-PIE forms like *wód-r̥/*w(o)d-én- > *wat-ur/*wat-in- which would explain the vocalism and the accent placement/Verner's alternation (ie. *hafudą/*ha(u)biþa-). Either way, it did exist and presents some difficulty in reconstructions.

In an effort to leave this page as clean and easy to read as possible, notes and explanations will be placed in a separate Notes section below.

And as always, this is a work in progress, as reading and research improves one's understanding, so reconstructions and meanings are subject to change.

Administration

Terms

This section is much less certain, largely because of the time depth, but also the conflicting systems of subdivision. The subdivisions seem to have been legal in nature, consisting of a "regional" and a "local" level which is mostly reconstructible, although the terms aren't agreed upon exactly.

  • *gawją - n - "region, district, country(side)" [1] < *gʰh̥́₂w-yom - cf. (possibly) AG Khā́ōn/Khāoníā[2] (if from *ǵʰ/gʰeh₂w-o-)
  • *har(j)ōþą/*har(j)ōdą[3] (obl. *hariþa-) - n - "district, hundred"[4] < *harjaz + *-ōþą (possibly)
  • *hundarją/*hundriją/*hundazją[5] - n - "hundred (district)" < *hundą ("hundred (number)") + *-(a)r-/*-az- (uncertain suffixation)
    • ON hundari; OHG huntari
  • *landą - n - "land; region, country"[6] < *londʰ-om
    • GO land ("land; country"); ON land ("land; country"); OE land ("land; country"); OF land ("land; country"); OS land ("land; country(?)"); OHG lant ("land; country")
  • *marką - n - "mark, sign" < "a bordering, edge, rim"[7] < *morǵ-om
  • *markō - f - "bounds, limit, boundary", also "frontier, outland, (outlying) region" < *morǵ-eh₂
  • *þunginaz
    • OLF/LA thunginus; OHG dungino
  • *waldaną (pret. *wulþ-) - stv - "to rule, govern, control" < *h₂wolh₁-dʰ-(or *h₂wolh₁-t-)/*h₂wl̥h₁-t-[8]
    • GO waldan; ON valda, pret oll-; OE wealdan; OF walda; OHG waltan

Agriculture

Farming

  • *akraz - m - "field, open area of land; land used for cultivation, farm" < *h₂eǵ-ros
    • GO akrs; ON akr; OE æcer; OF ekker/ēker; OS akkar; OHG ackar
  • *arduz - m - "arable land, soil" > "earth, land, dwelling"
    • OE eard
  • *arjaną - stv (7) - "to plow" < *h₂érh₃-y-eti
  • *arlą - n - "plowshare" < "plow" < *h₂erh₃-dʰlom/*h₂erh₃-tlóm
    • MHG arl (f.)
  • *arþrą (obl. *ardra-)[9] - n[10] - "plow" < *h₂érh₃-trom - cf. AG árotron; LA arātrum
    • GO ardrs; ON arðr; OSw arþer
  • *arþiz (obl. *ardi-) - f - "plowing, tilling, cultivation" < *h₂érh₃-tis/*h₂(e)rh₃-tí-
    • ON ǫrð; OE yrþ/irþ; OF raef-erd; OHG art
  • *falgō - f - "fallow land" < *polk-éh₂
    • OE *fealh (attested only as secondary "harrow") > ME falge/falwe; OF fallach; MD valge
  • *mēaną - stv - "to mow, cut" < *h₂méh₁-eti
  • *sēaną - stv - "to sow" < *séh₁-eti
  • *þresk(w)aną - stv - "to thresh" < *treskʷ- or *treC-sk-

Anatomy

Human

  • *ahslō - "armpit" < *h₂eḱs-l-eh₂
  • *ambô - m - "belly" < *h₃émbʰ-ō
    • OS ambon (pl.); OHG amban (pl.)
  • *amsaz - m - "shoulder" < *h₃ém-s-os
    • GO ams; NO ås ("hill, ridge")
  • *ankijǭ - f - "ankle" < *h₂eng-yeh₂
    • ON ekkja; OHG ancha/encha
  • *ankulaz (obl. *ankila-) - m - "ankle" < *h₂éng-ul-os/*h₂eng-é/íl-
    • ON ǫkla/ǫkkla, ǫkli; OE *æncel (?); OF ankel/inzil; MD ankel/enkel; OHG anch(a)la, enchil
  • *anþiją - n - "forehead" < *h₂ént-y-om
    • ON enni; OHG andi/endi
  • *armaz - m - "arm" < *h₂érH-mos
    • GO arms; ON armr; OE earm; OF erm; OS arm; OHG aram
  • *arsaz - m - "arse/ass, butt" < *h₁órs-os
    • ON ars/rass; OE ears; OF ers; OS ars; OHG ars
  • *augô - n - "eye" < *(h)awk-ṓ[11] < *h₃ókʷ-n̥/*h₃(o)kʷ-én-
  • *ausô (obl. *auzin-) - n - "ear" < *h₂éws-ō < *h₂éws-n̥/*h₂(e)us-én-
    • GO auso; ON eyra; OE ēare; OF āre; OS ōra; OHG ōra
  • *bainą - n - "bone" < *bʰoyH-nom
  • *bōguz - m - "upper arm, shoulder"
  • *bragną - n - "brain"
  • *fingraz - m - "finger" < *penkʷ-rós
  • *hafudą (obl. *haubiþa-) - n - "head" < *kh̥́₂p-ut-om/*kh₂p-í/ét-o - cf. LA caput/capit-[12]
  • *halsaz - m - "neck" < *kóls-os - cf. LA collus
    • GO hals; ON hals; OE heals/hals; OF hals; MD hals; OHG hals
  • *handuz - f - "hand" < *hinþaną ("to seize, catch") = *ḱont-ús
  • *hausaz - m - "skull" < *ḱ/kowH-s-os
  • *hersô (obl. *herzn-[13]) - m - "brain" < *ḱer(h₂)-s-o
  • *hertô - n - "heart" < *ḱerd-n̥
  • *hirzniją - n - "brain" (collective) < *herzn- + *-ją (collectivizing suffix)
    • MLG herne; OHG hirni
  • *hraifô - m - "wrist"
  • *hrefaz (obl. *hrifiz-) - n - "body, waist, abdomen" < *ḱrép-os/*ḱrép-es- - cf. LA corpus ("body") < *ḱr̥p-os/*ḱr̥p-es[14]
  • *hreþaz (ob. *hriþiz-) - n - "breast, chest, heart" < *krét-os/*krét-es-[15]
    • OE hreþer/hreþor
  • *hriþizją[16] - n - "diaphragm" < *krét-es-yom
    • OE mid-hriþere; OF mid-hreth(e)/mid-hrether(e)/mid-hrither(e)
  • *hrugjaz - m - "ridge, back, spine"
  • *humpaz - m - "hip
  • *knewą - n - "knee" < *ǵnew
  • *krausiją - n - "bowels, guts" (collective) < *ǵ/grow-s-yom
    • MD kroos; MHG (ge-)krœse
  • *lagjaz - m - "leg" < *loǵʰ-yos
  • *librō - f - "liver" < *likʷ-r-éh₂ < *lyḗkʷ-r̥ ("liver")
  • *limuz - m - "limb, member" < *li-m-us
  • *liþuz - m - "joint, member" < *li-tus
  • *lōfô (obl. *lappan-) - m - "palm of the hand"
  • *ludjō - f - "face" < *h₁ludʰ-yeh₂
  • *lungǭ - f - "lung, lungs" < *h₁ln̥gʷʰ-eh₂(n)
  • *magô'/*magę̄ - m - "stomach" < *mok-ṓ possibly *mok-ḗn - cf. PC *mokīnā ("bellows"); PS *mošьna ("small bag, purse")
  • *mundō - f - "hand"[17] < *mh₂-n̥t-éh₂
  • *munþaz' - m - "mouth" < *mń̥t-os - cf. LA mentum ("chin"); PC *mantom ("gums, jaw")
  • *mūs - f - "mouse; muscle" < *muHs-s - cf. AG mū́s ("mouse; muscle"); LA mūs ("mouse; muscle")
    • ON mús; OE mūs; OHG mūs
  • *naglaz - m - "nail, fingernail, toenail" < *h₃nogʷʰ-los
    • ON nagl; OE næġel/nægl; OF neil; OS nagal; OHG nagal
  • *nasō/*nusō - f - "nose" < *nh̥́₂-s-eh₂
    • ON nǫs; OE nosu; OF nose; OS nasa; OHG nasa
  • *þūmô (obl. *þumin-)- m - "thumb"
  • *wambō - f - "womb, belly"
  • *wrīhô (obl. *wrikkin-) - m - "instep" < *wréyk-ō/*wrik-né-

Death

Terms

  • *daudaz - adj/pp - "dead, having died"
  • *dauþuz - m - "death, dying"
  • *dawjaną - stv - "to die"
  • *dewaną - stv - "
  • *murþą - n - "murder"
  • *murþrą - n - "murder"
  • **nawistrą - n - "mortuary" < *nawiz + *-strą (instrumental suffix?)
    • GO ga-nawistrōną ("to burt, inter")
  • *nawiz - m - "corpse" < *nh̥₂w-is
    • GO naus; ON nár
  • *sterbaną

Economy

Terms

  • *bugjaną - wkv - "to buy, agree to exchange" < *beuganą ("to bend, bow")
  • *dailą - n - "share, part" < **dailaną ("to divide")
  • *dailijaną - wkv - "to deal, distribute" < *dailą/*dailiz
  • *dailiz - m - "share, part" < "division" < **dailaną
  • *fehu - n - "wealth; cattle, livestock" < *péku
  • *geldą - n - "payment, tribute, compensation" < *geldaną
  • *geldaną - wkv - "to pay, yield (up)" < *gʰeldʰ-
  • *gelstrą - n - "levy, tax, contribution" < *geldaną + *-þrą (instrument suffix)
  • *hleutaną - stv - "to cast lots; to obtain by lot" < *klewH-d-
  • *hūzijaną - wkv - "to hire"
  • *laigijaną - wkv - "to rent, hire" < "to make loan" < *līhwaną
  • *laihną - n - "loan"
  • *līhwaną - stv - "to loan, lend" < "to leave (behind)"
  • *mōtō - f - "tax, toll" < "obligation" < *mōtaną
  • *nautą - n - "cattle; ox" < *neutaną ("to use, make use of")
  • *saljaną - wkv - "to sell, offer up in exchange" < **selaną ("to take")
  • *salō - f - "sale" < **selaną
  • *werþaz - adj - "worth, valued (at)" < "turned, become" < *werþaną ("to turn > to become")

Food and Drink

Drink

  • *alu (obl. *aluþ-) - n - "ale" < *He/ol-ut
    • ON ǫl; OE ealoþ; OS alo-fat; MD ale/ael; MHG al-schaf
  • *beurą - n - "beer" < *bʰrewH-r-om[18] ("brewing") (< earlier *bʰréwH-ōr?)
    • ON bjórr; OE bēor; MD bier; OHG bior
  • *līþu - n - "cider" < *(H)léyt-u or *(H)líH-t-u
  • *medu - n[19] - "mead" < *médʰ-u(s) (cf. AG méthu; SA mádhu)
    • ON mjǫðr (m.); OE meodo(m./n.); OF mede (m.); MD mede (m.); OHG metu/meto/mito (m.)
  • *meluks[20] (obl. *milik-) - f - "milk" < *h₂melǵ-
    • GO miluks; ON mjǫlk; OE meoloc/meolc; OF melok; OS miluk; MD melc/mellic/meelc; OHG miluh/milih
  • *watōr (obl. *watin-) - n - "water" < *wód-r̥ + *wéd-ōr[21]
    • GO wato/watin-; ON vatn; OE wæter; OF weter; OS watar; OHG wazzar

Food

  • *ankwô - m - "butter < fat, grease" < *h₃éngʷ-ō/*h₃éngʷ-n̥(originally) - cf. LA unguen ("fat, grease") < oblique *h₃n̥gʷ-
    • OHG ancho
  • *daigaz - m - "dough"
  • *hlaibaz - m - "bread" < *ḱ/kloyp-ós or *ḱ/kloy-bʰ-os
  • *hunangą - n - "honey" < *kn̥h₂-onḱ-os
    • ON hunang, OSw hunagh; OE hunig OS honig; OHG hona(n)g
  • *kakǭ - f - "cake" < *gH̥g-
    • ON kaka
  • *kōkô - m - "cookie" < *goHg-
    • MD coeke; OHG kuohho
  • *jūstaz - m - "cheese" < *yuHs-t-os - cf. AG zū́mē; LA iūs/iūr-; SA yū́ṣ-
    • ON ostr[22]; → FI juusto
  • *matiz - m - "food" < *mod-is or *mH̥d-is
  • *mili[23] (obl. *miliþ-) - n - "honey" < *mel-it
    • GO miliþ (secondary a-stem)

Terms

  • *drankijaną - wkv - "to drench, cause someone to drink" < *dʰrong-éyeti
  • *drinkaną - stv - "to drink" < *dʰréng-eti
  • *etaną - stv - "to eat" < *h₁éd-eti
  • *fōdijaną - wkv - "to feed, cause to eat (food)" < causative to a lost **faþaną[24] ("to eat, graze")
  • *hlaupijaz - m - "rennet" < *hlaupaną
    • IC hleypir
  • *hungruz - m - "hunger" < *kn̥k-r-ús
    • GO hūhruz; ON hungr; OE hungor; OS hungar; OHG hungar
  • *jestuz - m - "yeast" < *jesaną ("to ferment")
    • ON jǫstr; OSw iæster; OE gist/gyst; MLG gest; MD gest/gist; MHG jest
  • *þurstuz - m - "thirst" < *tr̥s-tus
    • OE þurst/þyrst; OS thurst; OHG durst

Geography

Features

  • *ahwō - f - "river, stream, waters" < *h₂ékʷ-eh₂ cf. LA aqua
    • GO aƕa; ON á; OE ēa; OS aha; OHG aha
  • *akraz - m - "field, open area of land; land used for cultivation, farm"[25] < *h₂eǵ-ros - cf. AG agros and LA ager
    • GO akrs; ON akr; OE æcer; OF ekker/ēker; OS akkar; OHG ackar
  • *albī - f - "(large?) river" possibly also "torrent" < *h₂elbʰ-ih₂[26]
  • *angiją - n - "grass-land, pasture, plain" < "hollow, mountain glen" < *h₂enk-yóm[27]
    • ON eng (f.), eng(i) (n.)
  • *angraz - m - "valley, gorge, hollow" > later "meadow, plain" and "bay (of a fjord?)"[28] < *h₂enk-rós - cf. LA ancrae ("gorge, ravine")
    • ON angr ("bay"); MD angr; OHG angar ("meadow, plain")
  • *awjō - f - "island" < *He/ow(H)-yeh₂[29] cf. *aurą ("mud, sand, sediment") < *He/ow(H)-r-om
    • ON ey; OE īeg; MD ooi/ouwe; OHG ouwa
  • *barzwaz/*barwaz - m - "pine grove"
  • *bergaz - m - "mountain, height" < *bʰerǵʰ-os
    • ON bjarg/berg; OE beorg; OF berch; OS berg; OHG berg/berag
  • *brōkaz - m - "swamp"
  • *dalaz - m - "dale, valley" < *dʰolh₂-os - cf. PS *dȍlъ
    • GO dal(s); ON dalr; OE dæl; OS dal; OHG tal
  • *dōlijō - f - "depression, hollow" < *dʰōlh₂-yeh₂
    • ON dœl; MD doele; OHG tuolla
  • *dulō - f - "ditch" < *dʰl̥h₂-eh₂
    • OHG tula
  • *felþaz/*felþuz[30] - m - "field, plain, area of open land < *kʷél-tos/-tus ("going round, driving (as through a meadow)") [31] - cf. LA cultus
    • OSw fiälder/ur-fælder/ur-fialder ("(enclosed) field") (Noreen, §78, 3; p. 74); OE feld (a- and u-stem); OF feld; OS feld; OHG feld
  • *graibō - f - "grove, copse" < *gʰroybʰ-eh₂[32]
  • *haiþī - f - "heath, heathland" < *kéh₂i-t-ih₂ ("shrubland(?)") - cf. PC *kaitos ("wood")
  • *halluz/*hallaz - m - "rock (formation), boulder, stone slab" < *kolH-n-ús/*kolH-n-ós - cf. LI kálnas ("mountain, hill")
  • *haugaz - m - "hill, height" < < *kauk-ós < *kakʷ-ós < *kH̥kʷós - cf. LA cacūmen ("peak, summit")
  • *hulliz - f - "hill, mountain" < *kl̥H-n-ís - cf. LA collis ("hill")
  • *hulmaz - m - "mound, hill" > "islet, small island" < *kl̥H-mos
  • *hultą - n - "wood, grove" < *kl̥d-om
  • *laguz - m - "lake, pond" < *lok-ús
  • *lakō - f - "pool, swamp, lake" < "leaking" < "gathering/collecting (of water)" < *lekaną ("to leak")/*log-éh₂ - cf. AG légō ("to gather, choose"), -logḗ; LA legō ("to choose, collect")
    • OE lacu
  • *landą - n - "land, dry land, earth" < *londʰ-om
  • *lauhaz - m - "clearing, glade, meadow" < *lówk-os ("lit/clear (area)"
  • *lēswō - f - "pasture, pasturage" < *leh₁-d- + -tweh₂- ("letting (to pasture")
  • *mari - n - "sea, ocean" < *mor-i
  • *mēdwō - f - "meadow, area intended for mowing, cutting" < "mowing" < *meh₁-twéh₂
  • *mōraz - m - "moor, bog" < *mōr- a secondary functional o-grade derivation from *mari
  • *nasjaz - m - "headland, promontory" < *nasō
    • ON nes; OE næss/næesse[33]
  • *saiwiz[34] - m - "lake, sea" < *soykʷ-ís
  • *walþuz - m - "uncultivated area, wilderness, wildland"[35] > (later) "wood; meadow"< *wólt-us[36]
    • ON vǫllr; OE weald; OF wald; OS wald; OHG wald
  • *wangaz - m - "meadow" < *wongʰ-os
    • GO waggs; ON vangr; OE wang; OS wang; OHG holz-wanga
  • *wetǭ - f - "wetland"
    • NO (dial.) vete
  • *wurþiz - f - "mound, elevation" < *h₂wŕ̥-tis
    • ON urð; OF wurth; OS wurth
  • *skagô - m - "tip, edge, end" > "copse, thicket", "cape, promontory" < **skahaną
    • ON skagi; OE sċeaġa
  • *skōgaz - m - "tree, wood" < "projecting (thing), jutting out"
  • *stainaz - m - "stone" < *stoyh₂-nos
  • *trewą - n - "tree" < *dr-éw-om
  • *widu - n - "wood" < *(h₁)wi-dʰ(h₁)-u

Habitation

Settlements

  • *burgz - f - "town, stronghold, fortified settlement" < *bʰŕ̥ǵʰ-s or *bʰŕ̥gʰ-s[37]
    • GO baurgs; ON borg; OE burg; OF burch/burich; OS burg; OHG burg
  • *haimaz - m - "home: one's own dwelling, village, country"
    • ON heimr; OE hām; OF hēm; OS hēm; MD heem; OHG heim
  • *þurpą - n - "area, country(side); outlying settlment(s)"[38] < *tŕ̥b-om cf. LA trabs; LI trobà; Proto-Celtic *trebā[39]
    • GO þaurp; ON þorp; OE þorp; OF therp/thorp; OS thorp; OHG dorf
  • *wīhsą - n - "village, settlement, country(side)" < *wéyḱ-s-om (originally an s-stem, *wéyḱ-os/**wéyḱ-es-)
    • GO weihs

Health

Hygiene

  • *baþą - n - "bath" < *bʰh̥́₁-tom < *bʰh̥₁-tós[40] (with stress-shift derivation)
  • *baþōną - wkv - "to bathe" < *baþą
  • *kambaz - m - "comb" < *ǵombʰ-os
  • *kambijaną - wkv - "to comb" < *kambaz
  • *lauþrą - n - "lather" < *lówh₁-trom - AG loutrón
  • *saipǭ/*saipwǭ[41] - f - "soap" < *soyp-(n-)eh₂/*soybʰ-(n-)eh₂
  • OE sāpe; OF sēpe; OHG seiffa/seipfa; → LA sāpō (borrowed)
  • *skabaną - stv - "to shave, scrape" < *skh̥́₂bʰ-eti
  • *tangō - f - "pincers: tongs, tweezers"[42] < *donḱ-éh₂ ("biting")
  • *waskaną - stv - "to wash" < *wód-sḱeti ("to (make) wet")

Injury and Sickness

  • *aitaz - m - "ulcer"
  • *arwaz (obl. *arwiz-) - n - "scar"
  • *darō - f - "damage, injury"
  • *gallô - m - "damage, flaw" < *ǵʰol-nṓ
  • *galraz - m - "swelling, pain" < *ǵʰol-ros
    • NO galder ("swelling in the foot of horses")
  • *gundaz - m - "infection, pus, gangrene" < "wound" < *gʷʰn̥-t-ós (probably)
    • GO gund; ON *gund > NO gund; OE gund; OHG gunt
  • *haihaz - adj - "one-eyed" < *keh₂i-kos
  • *haltaz - adj - "lame, halting, limping" < *kold-ós
  • *hamfaz - adj - "maimed" < *kómp-os
    • GO *hamfs (hamfamma); OS hāf; OHG hamf
  • *haulaz/*haulô - m - "hernia, rupture"
  • *hrīþô (obl. *hrittan-) - m - "fever, shivering" < *kréyt-ō/*krit-né-
    • OS hrido; MD ridde/rede; OHG rīdo/rit(t)o
  • *inkô - m - "pain, torment"
  • *inkwaz - m - "lump"
  • *tetruz - m - "tetter"
  • *teuną - n - "damage, injury"
    • ON tjón; OE tēon
  • *wundaz - adj - "wounded" < *wn̥-tós
    • GO wunds; OE wund; OS wund; MD wont; OHG wunt
  • *wundō - f - "wound" < *wundaz < *wundaz
    • ON und; OE wund; OF wunde; OS wunda; OHG wunta

Terms

  • *hailaz - adj - "whole, healthy, sound" < *koy-l-os
  • *hailiþō - f - "wholeness, healthiness, health" < *hailaz + *-iþō (condition suffix)
  • *sundaz - adj - "sound, whole" < *s(w)n̥t-ós

Treatment

  • *lēkijaz - "leaker, letter: leech; doctor" < **lēkijaną ("to cause to leak, let (of blood)") or (of "doctor") borrowed from PC *lēgyos[43]
  • *lubją - n - "herb" > "drug: medicine, poison" < *
  • *salbō - f - "salve, ointment" < *solp-éh₂

Law

Crime

  • *hlanþijô - m - "robber" < *klónt-y-ō
  • *hlanþō - f - "booty, loot, prey" < "something stolen/robbed" < *klónt-eh₂
  • *hlanþōną - wkv - "to rob"
  • *hlefaną - stv - "to steal, thieve" < *klép-eti - cf. AG kléptō
  • *hleftuz - m - "thief"
  • *murþ(r)ą - n - "murder" < *mŕ̥-t-om/*mŕ̥-trom[44]
  • '*murþ(r)ijaną - wkv - "to murder, kill (unlawfully/unjustifiably)" < *murþ(r)ą ("murder")
  • *serþaną - stv - "to hit, strike; to violate sexually, perform violent or deviant sexual acts" < *sért-eti
  • *þeubaną[45] - stv - "to thieve, steal" < "to slink, move furtively" < *teup-eti/*tup-éti(?)
  • *þeubaz - m - "thief" < "slinking" < *tewp-ós
    • GO þiubs; ON þjófr; OE þēof;
  • *þiufiją/ō - n/f - "theft"
    • GO þiubi; ON þýfi; OE þīfe-feoh; OHG diufa/diuba
  • *þupp/bōną - wkv - "to slink, loiter"
    • IC tufla; NO tuvla; NHG (dial) duppeln
  • *werganą - stv - "to strangle" or "to be strangled, suffocate"(?)[46] < *wérǵʰ-eti
    • MHG er-wergen
  • *wurgijaną - wkv - "to strangle" < *wr̥ǵʰ-yéti


Terms

  • *aiþaz - m - "oath" < *h₁óy(-)t-os
  • *dōmaz - m - "judgement" < *dʰoh₁-mos - cf. AG thōmós
  • *dōmijaną - wkv - "to judge, deem"
  • *dōmijô - m - "judge, deemer"
  • '*faihaz - adj - "hostile, criminal, outlawed" < *póyḱ-os
  • *faihiþō - f - "feud, hostility" < *faihaz ("hostile, criminal")
  • *lagą - n - "law, custom" < as if *logʰ-om[47] ("what is put, placed (down)")
  • *sahtiz - f - "quarrel, strife, dispute" < *sakaną ("to accuse, dispute") + *-þiz (action suffix)
  • *sakaną - stv - "to dispute, rebuke, quarrel" < "to claim, accuse, blame"[48] < *sh̥́₂g-eti
  • *sōkijaną - wkv - "to seek, look for, investigate (claims or crimes?)" < *sakaną/*soh₂g-éyeti
  • *sōkīniz - f - "investigation, inquiry"
  • *sōkiz - adj - "disputable, contestable"
    • GO un-and-sōks
  • *swaraną (sg. pres. *swar-j-) - stv - "to swear an oath" < *swór(-y)-eti
  • *swōraz - m - "oath, swearing" < *swōr-ós as if *swor-ós
  • *wadją - n - "pledge, security, surety" < *wadjaną
  • *wargaz - m - "outlaw, criminal" < *worǵʰos[49]
  • *wargijaną - wkv - "to outlaw, declare a criminal" < *wargaz or *werganą
  • *wira-geldaz - m - "man's price/worth, wergild" < *wiraz/*weraz (a-umlaut) + *geldaz ("price, worth, yield")
  • *witōþą (obl. *witōda-) - n - "law, custom" < "that which is observed"
  • *wītwōdz - m - "witness"
  • *wrakaz - adj - "persecuted, criminal, hostile"
    • OE -wræc; MD wrak
  • *wrakaz - m - "one who wreaks, pursuer, avenger"
  • *wrakjaną - wkv - "to make persecuted, pursue, chase" < *wrekaną/*(H)wrog-éyeti
    • GO wrakjan; ON rekja; OE wreċċan
  • *wrakjô - m - "one who is persecuted, criminal, wrong-doer"
    • OE wreċċa; OS wrekio; OHG reck(e)o
  • *wrakō/*wrēkō - f - "persecution, revenge"
    • GO wraka; ON rák; OF wrēke; OS wrāka; OHG rāhha
  • *wrekaną - stv - "to wreak, punish, avenge; to persecute, pursue (a criminal)" < *(H)wrég-eti
  • *wrēkijaną - wkv - "to make persecuted, criminal > to reject, exile" < *wrekaną (secondary functional o-grade)
  • *wrēkiz - adj - "able to be persecuted; wicked, criminal" < *wrekaną (secondary functional o-grade gerundive)

Measurement

Dimension

  • *fawaz - adj - "few, little" < *ph̥́₂w-os or *peh₂w-ós[50]
  • *feluz - adj - "much, many" < *pel-us
  • *lītilaz/*lūtilaz - adj - "little, small"
  • *mekuz - adj - "great, big"
    • ON mjǫk
  • *midilaz - adj - "middle, medium"
  • *midjaz - adj - "mid, middle" < *medh-yos - cf. AG mésos; LA medius
  • *mikilaz - adj - "great, big"

Distance

  • *rastō - f - "interval, rest; a measure of distance, a mile" < *Hros-teh₂ or *HrH̥s-teh₂


Terms

  • *mēdiz - f - "measuring, measure" < *meh₁-tís

Time

  • *stundō - f - "a while, time; a measure of time, an hour" < *stn̥-t-éh₂ or *stn̥dʰ-eh₂

Metallurgy

Terms

  • *arutją (obl. *aritja-) - n - "ore (collective)"
    • OHG aruzi/arizi
  • *aruts (obl. *arit-) - m - "ore" < *(H)o/ar-ud-s
    • OD arut; OHG aruz/ariz
  • *ōrô - m - "ore, unwrought metal" < *(H)ōr-/*(H)or-[51]
    • OE ōra

Possessions

Clothing

  • *brakkǭ/*brakkaz - f/m - "pant(s); (lower) leg(s)" < *bʰrog-né-[52]
    • ON *brakka' > Elfd. brakka, EDa. brakker
  • *brōks - f - "leg of a pair of breeches; breeches, pants (pl.)" < **brakaną/*bʰrṓg-s/*bʰróg-s[53]
    • ON brók; OE brōc; OF brēk; OHG bruoh
  • *gurdilaz - m - "girdle, belt" < *gʰr̥dʰ-el-os
    • ON gyrðill; OE gyrdel; OF gerdel; OS gurdel; MD gordel; OHG gurtil/gurtila)
  • *hadinaz - m - "coat, jacket"
    • ON heðinn; OE heden
  • *hakulaz (obl. *hakila-) - m - "mantle, cloak"
    • GO hakuls; ON hǫkull, and hekla (< *hakilo-n); OE hæcla, hacele (f.); OF hezil; OHG hahhul
  • *halsiją - n - "collar" < *kols-(e)y-om
    • ON helsi; MHG helse
  • *hamiþją - n - "undergarment: shirt (with short sleeves), tunic"[54] < *hamaz + *-iþją (collective suffix)
  • *hattijǭ - f - "cowl" < *hattuz
  • *hattuz - m - "hat" < *kh̥₁t-n-ús
  • *hōdaz - m - "hood, hat" < *koh₁t-ós (sort of)
  • *hrukkaz - m - "upper garment, robe, frock" < *kruK-nós
    • OS hrok; OHG rock; → OFr froc
  • *kurtilaz - m - "kirtle, knee-length tunic" < uncertain, but possibly a borrowing from Iranian
  • *luþō - f - "(fur) cloak; coarse cloth"
  • *paidō - f - "coat, cloak"
  • *sarkiz - m - "coat, covering, skin" < uncertain[55]
    • ON serkr; OE serc/syrc
  • *skōhaz - m - "shoe" < **skahaną
  • *wēdō - f - "garment, clothing" < (as if) *wod-eh₂ (secondary functional o-grade)

Jewelry

  • *arma-baugaz - m - "arm-ring, bracelet"
    • ON arm-baugr; OE earm-bēah; OHG arm-boug
  • *baugaz - m - "ring"
  • *halsa-baugaz - m - "neck-ring, torque"
    • OE heals-bēag; OHG hals-pouc/hals-boug
  • *manją - n - "necklace"

Terms

  • *wazjaną - wkv - "to dress, wear"

Tools

  • *adasô - m - "adze" < *Hodʰ-ós-ō
    • OE adesa/eadesa, adese
  • *agiþō/ǭ - f - "rake, harrow"
  • *akuzī (obl. *akwisjō-) - f - "axe" < *h₂égʷ-(u)s-ih₂/*h₂egʷ-é/ís-yeh₂- -
    • GO aqizi; ON øx; OE æx; OF axe; OS akus; OHG ackus
  • *alasnō/*alasnijō - f - "awl" < *alaz/*alô + *-asnō (instrumental suffix)
  • *anduraz - m - "ski, skid" < *h₁ondʰ-ur-os
    • ON ǫndurr
  • *angulaz - m - "hook, tip; fishhook" < *h₂enk-ul-ós
    • ON ǫngull; OE ongel; MLG angel; OHG angul
  • *anhulō - f - "strap, belt" < *h₂énk-ul-eh₂
    • ON ǫ́l/ál; OE ōl-þwang
  • *arþrą
  • *hakô (obl. *hakkan-) - m - "hook" < *kH̥k-n-
  • *hamaraz - m - "hammer" < *k/ḱom-or-
    • ON hamarr; OE hamor; OF homer/hamer; OS hamar/hamur; OHG hamar
  • *hlaidrijō - f - "ladder" < *ḱloy-tr-yeh₂ (< *ḱloy-tríh₂?)
  • *lewô - m - "scythe" < *lewh₁-ō ("(thing) that cuts")
  • *mattukaz (obl. *mattika-) - m - "mattock, kind of pick-axe" < *mot-né- + *-ǵ/gos
    • OE mattuc/mettoc/meottoc/meottic
  • *maþilō/ǭ - f - "plow, mattock?" (uncertain, but probably related to *mattukaz) < *mót-el-eh₂
    • OHG medela/medila
  • *naglaz - m - "fingernail; nail" < *h₃nogʷʰ-los
    • ON nagl; OE næġel/nægl; OF neil; OS nagal; OHG nagal
  • *segasnō/*segasnijō - f - "scythe"
    • OS *segisna; OHG segesna, segensa/segansa
  • *sigiþō/*sigiþjaz - f/m - "scythe; sword" < "cutting (instrument)" < *seg-í/ét-eh₂
    • ON sigð, sigðr/sigðir; OE sigþe/sīþe; MLG segede/sichte
  • *tangō - f - "pincers: tongs; tweezers" < *donḱ-éh₂ ("biting")

Production

Fabrics

  • *garną - n - "yarn, string" < *ǵʰór-n-om
    • ON garn; OE ġearn; OHG garn
  • *klaiþą - n - "cloth, fabric" < uncertain: *ǵ/gloy(-)t-om or *ǵ/gloh₁i(-)t-om
  • *klīþą - n - "piece of woven fabric" < uncertain: *ǵ/gley(-)t-om or *ǵ/gleh₁i(-)t-om

Terms

  • *flahaną - stv - "to flay, skin"
  • *flehtaną - stv - "to braid, plait"
  • *nēaną - stv - "to sew"
  • *siwjaną - wkv - "to sew"
  • *skeraną - stv - "to cut, shear (of sheep)"
  • *tawjaną - wkv - "to make, prepare"
  • *webaną - stv - "to weave"

Recreation

Terms

  • *galaną - stv - "to sing, chant, enchant"
  • *hlahaną (sg. pres. *hlahj-) - stv - "to laugh"
  • *hlahtrą - n - "laughter"
  • *hlaupaną - stv - "to spring up, leap, jump; to run" < *klow-bʰ-n-
  • *hlōgijaną - wkv - "to make laugh"
  • *laikaną - stv - "to play, jump, frolic"
  • *singwaną - stv - "to sing"

Religion and Folklore

Beings

  • *albiz - m - "elf"
  • *amsuz - m - "god(s) < lord(s), ruler(s)"
    • ON áss/óss; OE ōs; OS ās/ōs
  • *dwergaz - m - "dwarf" < *dʰwergʰ-os
  • *dwirgī - f - "female dwarf" < *dʰwergʰ-ih₂
    • ON dyrgr
  • *gudą - n - "god" < *ǵʰ/gʰú-t-om
  • *skradô'[56] (obl. *skrattan-) - m - "wicked supernatural being (whom steals things)" < *skrot(/d/dʰ)-n- or *skrH̥t(/d/dʰ)-n-
    • ON skratta-karl, skrati/skratti ("troll; vile wizard") ; OHG skrato, skraz, skrez, skrezzo ("goblin, kobold, faun(?)" < "supernatural being")
  • *skradǭ (obl. *skrattōn-) - f - "wicked supernatural female being (whom steals things (or husbands?))"
    • OE sċrætte ("adulteress, harlot")
  • *tīwaz - m - "god, heavenly being(s)"[57] < *déyw-os
  • *wala-kuzjǭ - f - "valkyrie" < "slain-chooser" < *walaz ("(the) slain") + *kuzjǭ ("chooser")
    • ON valkyria; OE wæl-cyriġe

Terms

  • *saiwalō - f - "soul" < uncertain
    • GO saiwala; OE sāwol/sāwl; OF sēle; OS seola/siola; OHG sēula/sēla
  • *wurdiz - m/f - "turning, becoming" (m.) > "fate" (f.) < *wr̥t-ís[58]

Locations

  • *alhs - m - "temple, shrine, sanctuary" < *h₂élk-s ("shelter") or possibly borrowed (Kroonen, p. 22)
    • GO alhs; OE ealh
  • *harguz - m - "shrine" < *kork-ús/*kark-ús (if borrowed)
  • *nimidaz - m - "(sacred) grove, pasture"(?) < *ném-et-os
    • OS nimid

Society

Assembly

  • *fulką - n - "crowd, throng, population" < *pl̥h₁-[59] or *(s)pl̥k-nóm[60]
    • ON fólk; OE folc; OF folk/fulk; OS folk; OHG folk/folc
  • *maþlą - n - "court, (general/public) assembly, forum"[61] < *mh̥́₂-tlom,[62] *mh̥́₁-tlom[63] or *mót-l̥[64]
    • GO maþl; ON mál[65]; OE mæþel; OS mahal; OHG mahal
  • *maþlijaną - wkv - "to speak, speak (publicly/officially), orate; to talk, make an agreement" < "to speak to/address the court"
    • GO maþljan; ON mæla; OE mæþlan; OS mahlian; OHG mahalen
  • *maþlōną - wkv - "to address, claim, accuse" < "to bring to court"
    • ON málendr (pl. "parties in a legal dispute"); OHG mahalōn
  • *mōtą - n - "meeting" probably originally "local meeting" < *moh₁d-om cf. AG mḗdomai
  • *mōtijaną - wkv - "to meet" < "to try, approach"
  • *mōtō - f - "tax" < "obligation" or "estimation"
  • *raginą - n - "decree, decision" <
  • *þingą - n - "matter, affair; case, thing" > (later) "meeting, assembly"[66] < *tenk-óm[67] ("suitable/favorable time")
    • ON þing; OE þing; OF thing; OS thing; OHG ding
  • *þingōną - wkv - "to discuss matters, affairs; to negotiate, deal with" < *þingą
  • *þunginaz
    • OLF/LA/Salic thunginus; OHG dungino

Companions

  • *fehu-lagô - m - "fellow, partner" either "wealth-sharer" or "wealth-placer" (= "of equal wealth" > "same status")
    • ON fé-lagi; OE fēo-laga
  • *frijōndz - m - "friend, some who cares for another" < *frijōną
  • *ga-hlaubijô - m - "with whom one shares bread, (eating) companion" < *ga- ("co(m)-") + *hlaubaz ("bread") + *-jô ("associated with")
  • *ga-matjô - m - "with who one shares meals/meat" < *ga- ("co(m)-") + *matiz ("meal; meat") > *-jô ("associated with")

Organization

  • *hīwą - n - "family, household" < *ḱey-w-om
  • *kunją - f - "clan, tribe, lineage" < *ǵn̥h₁-yom
  • *þeudō - f - "nation, people" < *tewt-éh₂

Persons

  • *gumô - m - "man (male human being), man(kind) < "man, human being" < *(dʰ)ǵʰm̥-(H)ō - cf. LA hemō/homō[68] ("man, human being")
  • *knabô (obl. *knapp-) - m - "knob, peg, pin" > "boy, lad" < *ǵnobʰ-ō/*ǵnobʰ-né-
  • *knehtaz - m - "boy, young man, servant" < "*knag, gnarl" < *ǵnegʰ-t-os[69] or *ǵ/gneḱ/k-
  • *kwēniz - f - "wife"[70] < *gʷēn-is - cf. SA jāni ("(having a) wife")
  • *kwenǭ (obl. *kunōn-) - f - "woman (female human being)" < *gʷen-eh₂(n)/*gʷn̥/gun-eh₂
    • ON kona
  • *magaþiz/*magaþī - f - "maiden, girl" < *mo/h̥₁gʰ-ót-is/h₂
  • *magulô - m - "little boy"
  • *maguz - m - "boy" < uncertain[71]
  • *maną - n - "person, (unspecified) human being; man, woman" < *(dʰǵʰ)mh̥₂n-om or *(dʰǵʰ)m-ón-om
    • GO ga-man; ON man
  • *manô/*manę̄ (non-sg.nom. *mann-[72]) - m - "human being, person; male human, man" < *(dʰǵʰ)mh̥₂n-ṓ/ḗn/*(dʰǵʰ)mh̥₂n-né-[73] , *(dʰǵʰ)m-ṓ/*(dʰǵʰ)m-ón-[74] or *món-us/*mon-wé-[75] - cf. Old Lithuanian žmuõ (< *(dʰ)ǵʰmṓ), LI žmónės (< *(dʰ)ǵʰm-eh₂-n-)
  • *mawī - f - "girl" < *mo/h̥₁gʰ-w-ih₂
  • *mawilǭ - f - "little girl" < *mawī + *-ilǭ (diminutive suffix)
  • *swainaz - m - "boy, servant" < "*(young) kinsman" < *swoy-nos - cf. LI sváinis, LV svainis ("brother-in-law")
  • *wiraz - m - "(adult) man, husband" < *wiH-rós[76]

Relatives

  • *aiþī - f - "mother" < *h₂éyt-ih₂
    • GO aiþei; ON eiða; OHG fuotar-eidī
  • *aiþmaz/*aiþumaz - m - "son-in-law" < *h₂éyt(-u)-mos)
    • OE āþum; OF āthum/āthom/āthem; OHG eidum/eidam
  • *ammǭ - f - "mommy > grandmother, nanny"[77] < *h₂em-meh₂ earlier *amma(?)
    • ON amma ("grandmother"); MD amme ("nanny")
  • *anô - m - "grandfather" < probably secondarily formed from *anǭ ("grandmother")
    • OHG ano ("grandfather")
  • *anǭ - f - "grandmother" < *h₂enH-eh₂(n) - cf. AG annís; HI anna- ("mother"), ḫanna- ("grandmother"); LA anna ("foster-mother")
    • OHG ana ("grandmother")
  • *attô - m - "dad" < *h₂et-tō earlier *atta - cf. AG átta; LA atta
    • GO atta; ON atti; OF aththa (< *aþþô[78]?); OHG atto
  • *awô - m - "grandfather" < *h₂ewh₂-ō
    • ON ái ("great-grandfather"), possibly afi in the sense of "grandfather", then secondary for *avi
  • *awǭ - f - "grandmother" < *h₂ewh₂-eh₂(n)
    • GO awo ("grandmother")
  • *baswô - m - "paternal uncle" < *bʰo-[79] + *swe/o ("like, related to")
  • *bōô - m - "(young) male relative" < *bʰō-/*bʰo- + *-ô (personalizing suffix)
    • OE *bōia[80] > ME boy(e)
  • *brōþēr - m - "brother" < *bʰréh₂-tēr
    • GO brōþar; ON bróðir; OE brōþor; OF brōther; OS brōthar; OHG bruodar
  • *deuhtrą - n - "grandchild; daughter's child?" < *dʰewgh₂-trom ()
    • MHG diehter/tiehter
  • *duhtēr - f - "daughter" < *dʰugh₂-tēr
    • GO dauhtar; ON dóttir; OE dohtor/dohter; OF dochter; OS dohtar; OHG tohter
  • *fadēr - m - "father" < *ph₂-tḗr
    • GO fadar; ON faðir; OE fæder; OF feder; OS fadar; OHG fatar
  • *fadurwijô - f - "father's brother, uncle" < *ph₂tr̥wyon - cf. SA pitṛvya
    • OE fædera; OF fed(e)ria/feria/fadria; OHG fatureo/fatiro
  • *fōstrą - n - "fostering; (in compounds) foster-" < *pe/oh₂t- + *-trom < *peh₂-t-
    • ON fóstr; OE fōster; MLG fōster
  • *mēgaz - m - "son-in-law" < *mēgʰ-os or *meh₁-gʰos
    • GO mēgs; ON mágr; OE mǣg; OF mēch; OS māg; OHG māg
  • *mōdēr - f - "mother" < *meh₂-tḗr earlier *méh₂-tēr
    • ON móðir; OE mōdor; OF mōder; OS mōdar; OHG muoter
  • *mōdurwijǭ[81]/*mōd(ē)rijǭ - f - "maternal aunt"
    • OE mōd(d)ri(ġ)e; OF mōdrie; MD moeddere/moddere/modder; OHG muotera
  • *mōnǭ - f - "mammy, mother" < *méh₂-neh₂
    • ON móna; ME móne; MLG mōne
  • *nefô ("nephew; cousin") < *nép-ōt
    • ON nefi; OE nefa; OF neva/newa/nia(a)wa; MD neve; OHG nefo
  • *niftī - f - "niece; cousin" < *nep-t-ih₂
    • ON nift; OE nift; OF nift(e)/neft; MD nichte; OHG nift
  • *snuzō - f - "daughter-in-law, son's daughter" < *snus-éh₂ - cf. PS *snъxà; SA snuṣā́
  • *suhtēr - m - "son" < *suḱ-tēr (unattested by itself)
    • *suhter-ga-fadrijaniz - m - "uncle and (his) son(s)" < *suḱ-ter-ḱom-ph₂-tr-yones
      • OE suhtor-ġe-fæderan (pl.)
    • *suhtrijô/*suhturwijô - m - "brother's son, nephew; cousin" < *suḱ-tr-yō
      • OE suhtri(g)a
  • *sunuz - m - "son" < *suH-nús
    • GO sunus; ON sunr/sonr; OE sunu; OF suno; OS sunu; OHG sun(u)
  • *steupaz - adj - "step-(relative)"
    • ON stjúp-; OE stēop-; OF stiāp-; MD stiep-; OHG stiof-
  • *swegruz - f - "mother-in-law" () < *sweḱ-rús - cf. LA socrus; SA śvaśrū́
    • OE sweǵer; OHG swigur
  • *swēguraz - m - "brother-in-law" < *swēḱ-ur-ós - cf. SA śvāśurá
    • MD swager; MHG swāger
  • *swehraz/*swehrô - m - "father-in-law (husband's?)" < *sweḱ-wr-os - cf. SA śváśura
    • GO swaihra; OSw svǣr; OE swehor/swēor; MD swere/sweer/swaer; OHG swehur/sweher
  • *swehrǭ - f - "mother-in-law" < *swéḱ-wr-eh₂
    • GO swaihro; ON sværa (< *swihrijǭ)
  • *swēsinaþī - f - "sister-in-law" - as if from *swḗs-en-ot-ih₂
    • MD swasenede
  • **swēsô - m - "brother-in-law, sister's husband" < *swḗs-ō
    • implied by *swēsinaþī
  • *swestēr - f - "sister" < *swés-ōr ("own's own")
    • GO swistar; ON systir; OE sweostor/suster; OF swester; OS swestar/sustar; OHG swestar/soster
  • *swijô - m - "brother-in-law" < *swey-ō/*swiH-yō
    • OHG gi-swīo
  • *swijǭ - f - "sister-in-law, mother-in-law, niece (?)" < *swey-eh₂/*swiH-yeh₂
    • OHG gi-swīa
  • *swil(j)ô - m - "wife's sister's husband"(?) () < *swel-jō
    • ON svilar ("husbands of sisters"))
  • *swizjaz - m - "sister's son, nephew; cousin" - < *swes-yós
    • OSw swiri; OF swire; OE ġe-swiria
  • *taikweraz/*taikuraz - m - "brother-in-law" < *deh₂i-(h₃)wer-os?
    • OE tācor/tācur; OF tāker; OHG zeihhur/zeichur/zeihhor
  • *waswǭ[82] - f - "father's sister, paternal aunt" < *(s)wo(s) + *swe/*swo

Status

Class

Germanic society seems to have had a tripartite division of classes (technically four including the "unfree"), that distinguished the landed nobles/property-owners (*Aþu/ilingōz) and priestly class, the military or fighters (*Erlōz) and the workers (*Karlōz). This is not uncommon in IE societies, and probably reconstructible to PIE times itself. This wasn't a strict class system, as *karlaz could become *erlaz (by joining a warband) and *erlaz could become *aþu/ilingaz (given an accumulation of wealth/land). This is supported by the fact that in later Germanic languages, *erlōz were effectively nobles in their own right.

  • *aþ-l- ("nature, distinction; nobility")[83]
  • *aþalą - n - "nature, distinction, lineage" < *aþ- (uncertain, possibly related to *attô ("father"))
    • ON aðal; OS athal; OHG adal
  • *aþalaz - adj - "of a certain nature, distinction > noble, distinguished, leading" < *aþ- (uncertain, possibly related to *attô ("father"))
    • ON aðal-; OHG adal
  • **aþulaz (obl. **adila-[84]/**aþila-) - m - "rank or class of nobility, high-birth(?)" < *aþal- + collective u/i-infixal derivation
    • indirectly attested, see below
  • *aþulingaz (obl. *aþilingaz) - m - "one of noble rank" < *aþil-/*aþul- + *-ingaz (associative/personalizing suffix
    • ON öðlingr/eðlingr; OE æþeling; OS etheling; OHG edeling
  • *aþuljaz (obl. *aþilja-) - adj - "noble, superior, illustrious < being of noble rank" < *aþil- + *-jaz (relational suffix)
    • OE æþele; OF ethele; OS athali/etheli; OHG edili
  • *aþulōną - wkv - "to become noble, attain the rank of nobility; to win/gain property"
    • ON öðlast/øðlast ("to win/gain property"); OE ge-æðelian ("to become/make noble, illustrious")
  • *ōþalą - n - "ancestral property, patrimony" < *aþal-[85] (secondary functional o-grade)
  • *ōþilaz - m/n - "home, property" < *ōþalą + *-ilaz (agentive/diminutive suffix) (or *-ulaz/*-ila-)
    • OE ēþel; OF ēthel(e); OS ōthil; OHG uodil
  • *ōþ(i)lją - n - "(inherited) property, patrimony" (collective)
    • GO haim-ōþli; OF ēþel(e) (< *ōþ(i)ljaz?); OHG heim-uodil (< *ōdilaz, see above)
  • *erlaz - m - "earl, jarl;[86] (possibly) prīnceps (Tacitus)" < from either: *h₁er(H)- ("great, holy, expensive")[87] or *h₁er(H)- ("to strive, contend")[88]
    • ON jarl; OE eorl; OS erl
  • *erulaz (obl. *irila-) - m - "class of earls/jarls(?)"[89] (collective) < *erlaz + collective u/i-infixal derivation
    • LA Herules/Heruli, Erules/Eruli; AG Erouloi; Runic erila-/irila-, possibly eruls on "The spearhead of Rozwadów"
  • *karlaz - m - "freeman, man < old man"[90] < *ǵórh₂-l-os
    • ON karl; OE ċeorl[91]; OF tzerl/tzirl/kerl; MD kerle/kerel/kaerl; OHG karl/karal
  • *kunungaz[92]/*kuningaz - m - "chieftain"[93] or "prince" later > "king" < *kun- ("of (high) birth") + *-ingaz (assocative/personalizing suffix)
  • *lētaz - m - "freedman, someone released from slavery" < *lētaną ("to let, release")
    • GO fra-lēts;[94] OE *lǣt, frēo-lǣta; OF lēt; OHG lāz

Position

  • *ambahtaz - m - "attendant, public/private servant, minister"[95] < borrowed from Celtic = PC *ambaxtos/*ambi-axtos ("about-going")
      • GO and-bahts (folk etymology); OE ambeht (< *ambahtijaz/*ambahtuz/*ambahtiz: shows consistent signs of umlaut); OHG ambaht
  • *ambahtō - f - "female attendant, servant"
    • ON ambátt
  • *fraw(j)ô - m - "lord/first (of a household)" < *frawaz ("first")[96] < *proH-wós(with pre-tonic shortening) or *prH̥́-wos ("first") + -(j)ô (personalizing suffix)
    • GO frawja; OE frēa; OS frāho/frōho, frā/frō, also frōio[97]; OHG frō
    • further cf. OS frāno/frōno and OHG frōno < *fraw(a)nōą (gen. pl.)
  • *kabisjaz - m - "unfree man, slave" < *ǵobʰ-é/ís-yos < *ǵobʰ- ("branch, stick, cane")
  • *kabisjō - f - "unfree woman, slave" also (later/or especially) "slave with whom one is in a relationship/lives together" < *ǵobʰ-é/ís-yeh₂
  • *skalkaz - m - "slave, bondsman, servant"[98] < **skalkaną ("to do wrong, injure, mock")
    • GO skalks; ON skálkr; OE sċealc; OF skalk; OS skalk; OHG skalk/scalc
  • *þegnaz - m - "thane, retainer, servant, one in service to a higher rank" < *þigjaną[99] ("to receive, accept")
  • *þeudanaz - m - "king, leader of the people(s)"[100] < *tewt- + *-h₂enos or *-onHos (leader suffix) cf. AG koíranos for the suffix
  • *þewaz - m - "servant, (made) bondman, slave"[101] < *téwh₂-os ("who is watched, guarded > herded, constrained")
  • *þewernǭ - f - "maid, girl < servant girl, slave girl" < *þewaz ("slave, servant") + *-ern- (diminutive suffix)
    • ON þerna; OHG diorna
  • *þiwī - f - "female servant, bondwoman, slave" < *tewh₂-ih₂
    • GO þiwi; ON þý/þír; OE þeowu; OS þiwi; OHG diu
  • *þrawilaz - m - "thrall, slave, servant"[102] < *þrawjaną ("to be worn out, exhausted; to endure") or *þrawō ("longing, suffering") < *trowH- cf. AG trúō ("to rub, wear down")
    • ON þræll; OE þrēal/þrǣl (or from ON); OS thregil; OHG dregil/drigil[103]


Terms

  • *ambahtiją - n - "service, ministry" < *ambahtaz
    • GO and-bahti; ON embætti; OE ambiht; OS ambaht (< *ambahtą); OHG ambaht (< *ambahtą), ambahti)
  • *ambahtijaną - wkv - "to serve, minister" < *ambahtaz
    • GO and-bahtjan; ON embætta; OE ambehtan; OHG ambahten
  • *argaz - adj - "unmanly, cowardly, lewd" < *h₃e/orǵʰ-os
    • ON argr; OE earg; OF erch; MLG arch; MD arch/erch; OHG ar(a)g
  • *druhtinaz - m - "lord, leader, drighten"[104] < *druhtiz + *-(a)naz[105] (leader suffix)
  • *frija-halsaz - adj - "free, free-neck(ed)" < *frijaz + *halsaz
  • *frijaz - adj - "free, one's own (person) < dear to someone, (one's) own (friend/family)" < *priH-os (cf. PC *ɸriyos; SA priyá ("beloved, dear to"))
    • GO freis; OE frēow/frī; OF frī; OS frī; OHG frī
  • *þewāną - wkv - "to subdue, constrain, enslave" < *þewaz + *-āną (weak class 3 suffix)
    • GO ga-þiwan; ON þjá
  • *þewaz - adj - "unfree, subservient, servile" < *tewh₂-os
    • GO þius; ON -þér; OE þēow(a); OS theo-; MHG deo
  • *widuwernô - m - "orphan" < *h₁wi-dʰh₁-uh₂-(h₁)ern-ō
    • GO widuwairna
  • *widuwô - m - "widower" < *h₁wi-dʰ(h₁)-uh₂-ṓ
    • OE widuwa; OHG wituwo
  • *widuwǭ - f - "widow" < *h₁wi-dʰ(h₁)-uh₂-éh₂
    • GO widuwo; OE widewe/wudewe; OF widwe; OS widowa; OHG wituwa

Structures

Buildings/Living spaces

  • *bōiz - m - "settlement, homestead, farmstead" < "settling, building" < *bōaną
    • ON bœr
  • *bōþō - f - "hut, booth, (temporary) dwelling" < *bōaną
    • OSw bōþ; MLG bōde; MHG buode
  • *būą - n - "dwelling, estate, habitation"
    • ON bú ("house, estate"); OE bū ("dwelling, habitation"); OS bū ("building, dwelling")
  • *būiz - m - "dwelling, habitation, residence" < *būaną
    • ON býr
  • *būrą - n - "(private) inner chamber, dwelling area, room"[106] < *būaną
    • ON búr; OE būr; OS būr(m.); OHG būr (m.)
  • *buþlą - n - "property, estate"[107] < *bʰh₂ú-tlom - cf. AG phútlon[108] ("plant")
    • ON ból ("farm, abode"); OE bold/botl/boþl ("building, dwelling"); OF bodel ("moveable property, assets, inheritance"); OS bodal ("landed property, dwelling, estate")
  • *fehu-hūsą - "place/space for cows/animals"[109] > "storage space" < *fehu ("cattle, livestock, wealth") + *hūsą ("house, space (for something)")
    • ON fjós ("cow-house, byre"); OE feoh-hūs ("treasury room"); OS *fehu-hūs > MLG vē-hūs ("cowshed, barn"); OHG *fihu-hūs > MHG vihe-hūs ("cowshed")
  • *gardaz - m - "yard, courtyard, enclosure" < *gerdaną ("to enclose")
  • *hallō - f - "room, chamber" > "meeting-room, hall, large room (for feasting/entertaining)"[110] < *helaną/*ḱol-néh₂ ("to cover, conceal") cf. LA cella ("small room, storeroom")
    • ON hǫll; OE heall; OS halla; OHG halla
  • *hudjǭ - f - "hut, small or temporary dwelling"[111] < *(s)kewdʰ- ("to hide, conceal, cover") - cf. AG keúthō ("to conceal")
    • OHG huttea > MHG hütte
  • *hufą - n - "hall, meeting room, entry hall"[112] < *kúp-om
    • ON hof; OE hof; OF hof; OS hof; OHG hof
  • *hūsą - n - "building, house, structure that houses/holds (people/things/animals)" < *ḱ/kúH-s-om[113]
  • *kubô - m - "vault, hollow" < *gubʰ-ṓ/*gup-ō[114]
    • ON kofi; OE cofa; MD cove; MHG kobe
  • *kutą/*kutǭ - n/f - "small house, shed, cottage" < *gud-om/*gud-eh₂(n)
    • ON kot; OE cot, cote; MLG kōte; MD cot,cōte; MHG kōte
  • *salaz (obl. *saliz-) - n - "room, dwelling space"[115] < *sól(H)-os/*sól(H)-es- cf. Proto-Slavic *selò ("village, settlement")
  • *saliþwō - f - "dwelling area, room, living space" < "abiding, residing" < *saljaną ("to stay, reside (in a *salaz)") + *-þwō (deverbal suffix)
    • GO saliþwa/saliþwōs; OE sælþ; OS selitha; OHG selida
  • *teldą - n - "tent" < *del-dʰ-om

Construction

  • *ansaz - m - "(wooden) beam" < *Hé/ón-s-os
    • GO ans; ON áss; MHG ans-boum
  • *timrą - n - "timber, lumber, building material" < *dém-r-om[116]
    • ON timbr; OE timber; OS timbar; OHG zimbar
  • *timrijaną - wkv - "to build, construct" < *timrą + *-janą
    • GO timrjan; OE timbran; OS timbrian; OHG zimbaren
  • *timrōną - wkv - "to build, construct" < *timrą + *-ōną
    • ON timra; OE timbrian; OF timbr(i)a/timmeria; OS timbrōn; OHG zimbarōn

Features

  • *anþō (obl. or pl. *andō-) - f - "antechamber < threshold, entryway (?) < *h₂ént-eh₂/**h₂ent-éh₂-
    • ON ǫnn/ǫnd
  • *auga(n)-durō[117] - n(pl) - "window(s)"
    • GO auga-dauro; OE ēag-duru; OF an-dern; OHG ougatora
  • *durī[118] - n(du) - "gate; doorway" < *dʰur-iH
    • ON dyrr (n. pl. and f. pl.); OHG duri
  • *durō - f - "door" < *dʰur-eh₂ - cf. AG thúra
    • OE duru; OF dore; OHG tura
  • *faþō - f - "fence" < *ph̥́₂-t-eh₂
    • GO faþa; MHG vade
  • *furai-durją - n - "forecourt, porch, entry hall"
    • GO fura-dauri; ON for-dyri; OE fore-dyre
  • *gardaz - m - "courtyard, yard, enclosure, space enclosed around a home" < *gerdaną/*gʰórdʰ-os
    • GO gards (i); ON garðr; OE ġeard; OS gard; OHG gart
  • *herþaz - m - "hearth, fireplace" < *kérh₃-tos
    • OE heorþ; OF herþ; OS herth; OHG herd
  • *hramô - m - "frame"
    • MD rame/raem; OHG rama; → FR frame
  • *hrōfą - n - "roof"
    • ON hróf; OE hrōf; OF hrōf; MLG rōf; MD roef
  • *hrōstaz - m - "rafters, wooden framework of a roof" < *kroH-st-os
    • OE hrōst; OS hrōst
  • *hrōtą - n - "roof, ceiling, roof space" < *kroH-d-om
    • GO hrōt; ON hrót
  • *þaką - n - "roof, cover, thatch" < *(s)tog-om
    • ON þak; OE þæc; OHG dach
  • *waigaz - m - "wall (of a building)"[119] < *woh₁i-kós or *woyḱ-ós[120] (cf. AG (w)oĩkos ("house"); SA veśá ("house, dwelling"))
    • OE wāg; OF wāch; MD weeg
  • *wajjuz - m - "wall (fortification)" < *wh̥₁y-ús ("twisting")[121] cf. AG teĩkhos with toĩkhos, LA mūrus/vallum with paries
    • GO waddjus; ON veggr

Travel

Riding

  • *minþlą - n - "bit of a bridle" < *mént-l-om (possibly earlier *mént-ōl?; can't be *ment-tlom)
  • *hanhistaz (obl. *hangista-) - "horse" < *ḱónk-(e)s-t-os/*ḱn̥k-és-t-o-[122] - cf. PC *kanxstikā
  • *hrussą[123] - n - "horse" < *krud-tom or *krut-tom[124]
  • *marhaz - m - "horse, steed" < non-IE *mark- - cf. PC *markos ("horse")
    • ON marr; OE mearh; OF mar; OHG mar(a)h
  • *marhī - f - "mare" < non-IE *mark-
  • *sadulaz (obl. *sadila-) - m - "saddle" < *sot-l-os or *sodʰ-l-os[125]

Sailing

  • *baitą - n - "boat; dugout, canoe" < *bʰoyd-om
    • ON beit; OE bāt
  • *burzdą - n - "board, plank(s); deck (of a ship)" < *bʰr̥s-dʰ-om
    • GO fōtu-baurd; ON borð; OE bord; OF bord
  • *farjaną - wkv - "to ferry, cross in a boat; to sail, ride in a boat"
  • *farjǭ - f - "ferry" < "that which causes to cross"
  • *flaustą/*flaustrą - n - "ship" < *plows-t(r)om[126] or *plout-s-trom
    • ON flaust/flaustr
  • *flawją - n - "ship, type of ship" < *plow-yom cf. AG ploĩon ("ship")
    • ON fley
  • *keulaz - m - "keel" < *gewl(H)-os
  • *nakwô - m - "small boat, dugout boat" < *nogʷ-ō[127]
    • ON nǫkkvi; OE naca; MD ake/aec; OHG nahho
  • *naustą/*naustrą - n - "boat-house, boat shed" < *nōz + *-st(r)om (instrumental suffix?)
  • *nōþ/tô - m - "rear (of a ship)" < *ne/oh₃t- - cf. AG nō̃ton ("back"); LA natis ("behind, rump, buttocks")
    • GO *nota (nōtin)
  • *nōz - f - "ship" < *neh₂-u-s[128]
    • ON nór
  • *siglijaną - wkv - "to sail, ride in a boat"
  • *skipą - n - "ship"[129]
    • GO skip; ON skip; OE sċip

Terms

  • *akaną - stv - "to drive (a vehicle, or animal drawing a vehicle)" < *h₂éǵ-eti
  • *fanþijaną - m - "to travel by foot" < **fanþaz ("way, path")/*pónt-yeti
  • *faraną - stv - "to go, travel" < *pór-eti
  • *laidijaną - wkv - "to lead (away), cause to depart, go" < *līþaną/*lóyt-eyeti
  • *līþaną - stv - "to depart, go away (usually by sea)" < *léyt-eti
  • *rīdaną - stv - "to ride, travel upon a horse" < *Hréydʰ-eti
  • *wagjaną - wkv - "to cause to move" < *weganą
  • *weganą - stv - "to move, carry, transport" < *wéǵʰ-eti
  • *wegaz - m - "road, way" < *weǵʰ-os

Vehicles

  • *ahsō - f - "axle" < *h₂eḱs-eh₂
  • *ahsulaz - m - "(small?) axle" < *ahsō + *-ulaz (diminutive suffix)
  • *lunaz (obl. *luniz-) - n - "linchpin"
  • *nabō - f - "nave, hub of a wheel" < *h₃nobʰ-eh₂
    • ON nǫf; OE nafu; MD nave; OHG naba
  • *wagnaz - m - "wagon, wain" < *wóǵʰ-nos

Warfare

Equipment

  • *arhwaznō - f - "arrow" < *arhwō + *-asnō (instrumental suffix)
    • GO arhwazna
  • *arhwō - f - "arrow" < *h₂érk-w-eh₂ - cf. LA arcus ("bow, arch")
    • ON ǫr; OE earh
  • *bugô - m - "bow" < *beuganą + *-ô (agentive suffix)
  • *brunjō - f - "breastplate, body armor" < PC *brusnyā[130]
    • GO brunja; ON brynja; OE byrne; OS brunnia; OHG brunja/brunna
  • *gaizaz - m - "spear" < *ǵʰ/gʰeh₂i-s-ós ("stick, staff") - cf. AG khaĩos; PC *gaysos
  • *helmaz - m - "helmet" < *helaną/*ḱel-mos
  • *heruz - m - "knife/(short)sword, with a single-edged blade"[131] < *ḱ/ker(H)-us
  • *mēkijaz - m - "(short)sword" < *meh₁ǵ/g-yos or *mēǵ/g-yos[132]
  • *sahsą - n - "knife, dagger, shortsword" < *sok-s-om
  • *skelduz - m - "shield" < *skel(H)-tús
  • *speru - n - "spear, hunting spear" < *sperHu - cf. LA sparus
  • *swerdą - m - "sword" < *swer(H)-dʰrom (dissimilation?)
  • *terwaz - m - "spear" < *der-w-os)

Organization

  • *(ga-)draugaz - m - "band, troop, retinue" < "companion(s), retainer(s)" < *dʰrowgʰ-ós - cf. PBS *droug-ós ("companion, friend")
  • *druhtinaz/*druhtīnaz - m - "lord, leader"[133] < *druhtiz + *-(a)naz[134] (leader suffix)
  • *druhtiz - f - "retainers, followers, retinue"[135] < "performing (military service)"[136] < *dreuganą ("to lead, perform") + *-þiz (action suffix)
  • *fulkiją - n - "array, host, division" < *fulką + *-ją (collective suffix)
    • ON fylki; OE fylce
  • *fulkijaną - wkv - "to arrange into groups, heap together" (> "to arrange troops, array for battle")
    • ON fylkja; OHG fulken
  • *hamsō[137]/*hansō - f - "host, crowd, company, band" < "ordered/arranged group" < *ḱóms-eh₂/*ḱóns-eh₂[138] ("what is arranged, ordered") - AG kósmos ("order"); LA cēnseō ("to estimate; to recommend")
    • GO hansa; OE hōs; MLG hanse/hense; OHG hansa
  • *harjanaz - m - "army-leader, head of an army" < *kor-y-h₂enos - cf. AG koíranos
  • *harjaz - m - "army" < *kor-y-os - cf. Lithuanian kãras/kãrias; PC *koryos
    • GO harjis; ON herr; OE here[140]; OF here; OS heri; OHG hari/heri
  • *wirudą/*wirida- - n - "host, troop, band (of men)" < *wiraz + *-ud/-id- - cf. Gaulish/Gallic Virido-vix (name of a chieftain)
    • ON virðar (pl.); OE weorod/werod/werud/wered

Terms

  • *badwō - f - "war, battle" < *bʰodʰ-weh₂
  • *gunþī (obl. *gundijō-[141]) - f - "war, battle, fight" < *gʷʰn̥-t-ih₂
  • *haþarō - f - "fight, struggle" < *kót-or-eh₂
  • *haþuz - f[142] - "war, battle" < */kh̥́₃-t(-)us
  • *hildī/*hildiz - f - "battle, fighting" < *kelh₂-t-ih₂
  • *wīgą - n - "fight, battle" < *weyk-óm
  • *wiganą (sg. pres. *wīh-) - stv - "to fight, contend (with)" < *wéyk-eti/*wik-ónti

Notes

  1. ^ probably the term for what Tacitus refers to as a "canton" or pāgus; the word is conspicuously absent in North Germanic, where its place is taken by "thirds" or "fourths" in some areas, "Syssels" in Jutland, or taken up by the "Hundred" which was itself then divided into "thirds", "fourths" and "eigths"; its absence in the North might not be clear indication that it isn't reconstructible to Proto-Germanic however, as it is also lacking in Old English, where its place is taken up sċīr, but we know that OE had it earlier on, as it appears in place-names, and probably continues in the modern term Yeoman
  2. ^ if related to the AG term, might have originally meant "open area"
  3. ^ this form is not at all certain, but a mechanical reconstruction of ON herað, with -a- to explain the lack of breaking, -j- to explain the i-umlaut (although this might be carried over from the oblique), and -ō- to explain the lack of syncope; the suffix must have been a type of t-stem that had -ō- in the strong cases but null in the weak, which was filled by -i- when -j- became syllabic, or alternatively, had -i- (< -e-) in the oblique cases, which still resolved to -i- from -ji- either way; the form *hariþ- is based on OHG herid- a hapax of uncertain meaning but in context is assumed to mean "community" or "district"
  4. ^ see below for another candidate
  5. ^ the suffix -az- usually appears in animal names, *ganazô, ("gander, male goose"), *katazô ("male cat"),
  6. ^ likely the term used to refer to the sovereign territory an individual people/tribe/nation held, ie. Ēota land ("Jutland, land of the Jutes"), probably what is meant by "state" rendered by LA cīvitās (Tacitus, chapter 12)
  7. ^ likely used for marking boundaries, borders, as with with stones or other markers
  8. ^ the preterite shows signs of arising from an aorist, which leads one to assume that the sg. stem was originally *welþ-, non-sg. *wulþ-, but was leveled out, at least in the ON reflexes; the voicing is like *kunþ- against *kund-, and probably arose to contrast with the preterite of *wiljaną, which was sg. *weld- (GO wild-), non-sg. *wuld- (OE wuld-)
  9. ^ alternatively, Gothic "regularized" it to *ardraz, based on the related *arduz, which however, is unattested in Gothic
  10. ^ masculine in GO and ON, but must have originally been neuter
  11. ^ the -w- is epenthetic from the preceding singular labial consonant and pretonic, so restricted to the oblique case form: *akʷ-én- > *awk-én-; this explains forms like *hafudą/*haubiþa- and *hahwaz/*hauhaz (< earlier *haugaz, cf. ON hár and hór (both "high"))
  12. ^ exact same declension or from *kH̥́p-ot/kHp-ót- ?
  13. ^ originally *hurzn-', as preserved in DU/MoD hoorn-dol ("mad", literally "brain-mad"), although probably with some confusion with hoorn ("horn"), cf. German hirn-toll ("frantic, mad")
  14. ^ implying a shared pre-form *ḱérp-os/*ḱr̥p-és-
  15. ^ formally matches the root behind AG krátos perfectly, except for the semantics; perhaps through an intermediate meaning "strong, firm" > "(like a) tree (trunk)" > "body, chest", compare LA rōbur ("(red) oak") and rōbustus ("oaken; firm, solid, robust"), but until further proof is found this is just speculation
  16. ^ Kroonen reconstructs it as *hriþriją, however the only way to account for all the forms that Köbler lists for OF, with and without -r-, and with umlaut to -i-, is to assume an original z/s-stem, to which was formed a secondary collective
  17. ^ probably the older Germanic term for hand, largely replaced by *handuz from an original adjective *handuz ("reaching"), probably elliptically from phrases such as *handuz mundō ("reaching hand")
  18. ^ with dissimilation from earlier *breurą
  19. ^ alongside the masculine in OE is a neuter form, the last vestige of the original neuter gender; neuter u- and i-stems were rare already in PGmc, and often shifted to other classes, usually masculine: *mari > OE mere (m.), ON marr (m.)
  20. ^ possibly dissimilated from *melk-uks/*milk-ik- with u/i-extended infixation and a suffix *-k-; however, more likely a hypercorrection of original *melk-s to a collective with u/i-infixal vocalism, which apparently is grammaticalized to the second-from-last position (syllable), here reflected as the second to last consonant
  21. ^ also *wet-r- attested in OSw Vætur, SW Vättern, and *wetǭ
  22. ^ the short vowel of ON is secondary, as proved by the Finnish borrowing; the change might have been made by association/influence with *jestuz ("yeast"), which is phonologically similar, or it could be based on an assumption that the word was derived from *jesaną ("to ferment") itself, therefore a secondary "zero-grade" was analogized
  23. ^ for the form without -þ-, cf. *mili-dawwō, *miliskaz
  24. ^ from *ph̥́₂-t- with resegmentation of the (probably aorist) 3rd sg. ending -t, just as in *hlaþaną ("to load"); the root itself (*peh₂-) meant to "to graze", so it's entirely possible the verb was earlier used only with cattle/livestock, before being used with people
  25. ^ Germanic must have narrowed the usage of *akraz somewhat more generally towards agriculture/cultivation, much like AG agrós and LA ager
  26. ^ probably from *h₂elbʰ- ("white"), either for rapids ("white water") or due to rock flour; cf. the name Raumelfr ("cream River"), modern Glomma/Glåma river in Norway
  27. ^ might have originally been a feminine formation, however it's possible that the feminine formation split off from the neuter plural, as the feminine was used in the plural to refer to "outlying lands"
  28. ^ the dual semantics from a single root can be found mirrored in AG leimṓn ("meadow") and limḗn ("port" < "*bay")
  29. ^ not from *h₂ekʷ-yéh₂, which would see de-labialization before -y-, as proved by *wulbī, oblique *wulgijō- from *wl̥kʷ-íh₂ oblique *wl̥kʷ-yéh₂- > *wl̥k-yéh₂-
  30. ^ if it were a u-stem, it would match the LA form perfectly, and it is partially inflected as such in OE; however it doesn't show signs of umlaut, especially in OE which we'd expect; likewise, it doesn't show signs of u-umlaut in OSw
  31. ^ with change of kʷ- to p-, where labiovelars "de-velarize" (term?), which seems to occur in or across closed syllable boundaries opposite a coronal/dental consonant; further, unlikely to be from from **pelth₂-, with Schwebeablaut from *pleth₂-, as it would be the only instance of such and is phonologically unmotivated, if anything we'd expect **pelth₂- to become *pleth₂- to avoid a heavy consonant cluster; additionally, it finds a near-perfect match in LA cultus < *k(ʷ)ol-tus < *kʷel-tus
  32. ^ one would expect it to be the primary o-grade ō-stem of **grīb- (< *gʰreybʰ-), the original root of *gripp/bōną ("to grip"), although the semantics simply don't relate to each other
  33. ^ assuming the masculine is original, as the other two genders/declensions displayed can plausibly be explain: the neuter gender of ON could be influenced by the association with the neuter gender of "body parts", which was productive in ON; also, if the form *nasjǭ is secondary, it's either because the gender was influenced by the original *nasō or simply that the suffix *-jǭ was still productive for location nouns, ie. as in secondary *kutjǭ ("cottage") from primary *kutą ("cottage")
  34. ^ a substantivation of the gerundive *saigiz, earlier nominative *saiwiz, which must have occurred when the form was still something like *saigwiz, otherwise within Germanic, an i-grade derverbal would be expected to appear in the zero-grade, **siwiz; therefore, the original meaning must have been "(that which is able to) filter, drain" (from rivers, streams) into "lakes", cf. the meaning of *lakō ("gathering, collecting (of water)");
  35. ^ uncultivated areas were generally used as sources of grass/hay and wood, so it's not surprising it developed into "wood(s)" in West Germanic and "meadow" in the North
  36. ^ related to *wilþijaz ("wild") and *welþaz/*wilþiz- ("wild animal")
  37. ^ either "high place" (early fortified settlements were usually built on hills), or "protected/protecting place" (fortifications), although probably the latter, in view of the parallel of LA arx ("stronghold") from arceō ("keep (off), ward off")
  38. ^ related to *þrepą (ON þrep ("shelf, ledge")), which provides us the underlying meaning of "edge, fringe", which is somewhat corroborated by Scandinavian legal usage for smaller settlements moved off/created from older settlements
  39. ^ if cognate with all the extra-Germanic comparisons, then almost certainly non-IE in origin
  40. ^ from the original past participle of the strong verb *bēaną ("to foment")
  41. ^ reconstructed as *saipwǭ by Kroonen to account for OHG gemination and Finnish saippua, although a form *saipijǭ might explain the former
  42. ^ rather than simply meaning "tongs", the original meaning was "pincers", any gripping tool in view of the original meaning "biting"; this is in view of one being unable to find a common Germanic word for "tweezers", which is known that they possessed from archaeological finds
  43. ^ if that is the proper reconstructed form, there appear to be a few reconstructions
  44. ^ probably originally *mŕ̥tom ("death") and *mŕ̥trom ("act of death, murder"), that fell together semantically; alternatively, *murþą is just a dissimilated form of *murþrą, but from post-PGmc date
  45. ^ should properly have been **þeufaną; it's possible it was a zero-grade present *þubaną (possible sg. pres. *þeuf-), the root variant *þeuf- does appear in OHG diufa/diuba; it's also possible it was improperly back-formed from the iterative *þupp/bōną, much like *smeuganą/*smūganą (< *smewk-) from the causative *smaugijaną
  46. ^ if the original meaning was "to be strangled, suffocated or hanged", then *wargijaną would make sense as a causative "to cause to be strangled", as in declaring someone an "outlaw" was declaring them "fit to be strangled/hanged"
  47. ^ a secondary functional zero-grade from the intensive o-grade **laganą, the existence of which however is proved best by *lōgą ("place, stead") the secondary functional o-grade a-stem, which can't come from *leganą/*ligjaną or *lagjaną by regular Germanic means
  48. ^ probably the verb used in such cases as mentioned in Tacitus' Germania, chapter 12
  49. ^ either *worǵʰós ("strangler") or *wórǵʰos ("(one who is) strangled, hanged") (punishment for an outlaw)
  50. ^ with pretonic shortening, as in *sunuz ("son") from *suHn-ús, but this is less like than the former
  51. ^ the functional o-grade of the root found in *aruts, acting in a relational capacity
  52. ^ looks like it might have gone back to a singulative n-stem, probably referring to the pant legs individually, either **brōkô/*brakkin- or **brakô/*brakkin-
  53. ^ in (secondary) ablaut relation to *brakkǭ; within Germanic, operates as a functional secondary o-grade to **brakaną ("to break apart, cleave, split") a lost intensive o-grade verb related to *brekaną ("to break"), for which cf. *brahtuz/*braht(u)maz, *braką, *brakjō; must have been borrowed by Celtic languages as *brākā(i) (early Celtic languages lacked a long -ō-, and -ā- was closest to Germanic /ɔː/), then elsewhere (LA brākae)
  54. ^ the collective suffix implies a shirt intended to be worn with something, therefore the underlying meaning must be as in OE, an undergarment
  55. ^ if originally "shirt, tunic", then might be borrowed from LA sērica (cf. OE serce/syrce (f.) and forms like syric-) and therefore not really of PGmc appurtenance; if originally meaning "coat, covering (of skins, furs)" then might be related to *sarwą ("equipment")
  56. ^ it's undertain if the underlying form was *skraþ- or *skrad-, only *skrad- is attested however
  57. ^ the name of *Tīwaz used as a general term for "god", as he was the original lord of the pantheon
  58. ^ originally a regular masculine zero-grade i-stem stem, like *drunkiz (< *dʰrn̥g-ís), *kurbiz (< *gr̥bʰ-ís), *skurdiz (< *skr̥dʰ-ís), but at some point it was reinterpreted as a feminine, either under the assumption it was a ti-stem, or simply due it being the name of a feminine religious figure, *Wurdiz (ON Urðr)
  59. ^ comparisons with LA plebes and AG plethus, with almost the exact same meaning are hard to ignore, however the Germanic term can't be directly cognate
  60. ^ it would then be derived from the root of *fulgijaną and *fulgāną ("to follow"), originally denoting a "following (of people")
  61. ^ probably the assembly of the Germanic freemen, to which they all were obligated to attend and vote, according to Tacitus; in Gothic, it translates AG agora, Latin forum; further, Salic/Frankish mallus (< *mahl?) refers to the judicial assembly, as does Kentish mæþel
  62. ^ not from mod-tlom or mh₁d-tlom, as those would give **maslą, so of no relation to *mōt-; although it's possible they did influence each other in meaning
  63. ^ according to Tacitus, the general assembly was held roughly once a month, it is presumed to be at the full or new moon (or of some relation to the cycles of the moon), in which case it could be a derivation of the same root found in "moon" (*méh₁-nō/*meh₁-nḗn) from *meh₁- ("to measure")
  64. ^ of basically the same meaning as the previous, "measuring/marking (off)"
  65. ^ due to the importance speaking had in relation to the assembly, the meaning in ON narrowed specifically to public speaking and discussion, while semantically it was replaced by þing, which was originally the "matter" discussed at such an assembly
  66. ^ it is generally thought that the word originally meant "assembly" then shifted to "that which was discussed at the assembly", but in view of the original semantic space of *maþlą, the reverse is likely true: the freemen gathered at/for the assembly (*maþlą, literally "measured (time)") or possibly "indicated (time)") to discuss a/the "matter(s)/affair(s)" (*þingą, literally "suitable (things)" = AG prãgma)
  67. ^ maybe originally *þangą(?); cf. *þangilaz ("prince") < "someone who leads (in a matter/affair)"
  68. ^ hemo is older, probably represent the original ablauting strong form, *(dʰ)ǵʰem-(H)ō, against oblique *(dʰ)ǵʰm̥-(H)ō, where Germanic only attests the oblique form
  69. ^ related to *knagô/*knakk- ("knag, knarl"), for the semantics compare *knabô ("knob, peg" also "boy"), and *drangiz ("young man") from *drangaz ("post, pillar")
  70. ^ as Kroonen notes (316-317), it very much resembles an o-grade i-stem gerundive "able to me married"
  71. ^ if truly connected to *mēgaz ("son-in-law"), then reconstructible as *mh̥₁gʰ-u-s
  72. ^ the gemination is hard to account for, PIE and presumably post-PIE (up until a certain point, as shown by Kluge's law), didn't allow long consonants/gemination, therefore, it's most likely that it represents a reapplication of n-stem endings based on the singular, *man-ô/ę̄ > *man-n-, much like *uhsę̄, (pl.) *uhsniz
  73. ^ in which case, the paradigm consisted of strong *man-ô/*man-ę̄, weak *man-(n)-, where the weak stem could be re-parsed as a consonant stem, especially in use as a plural (*man-(n)iz, like *uhs-niz); for the stem see LI žmónės, žmonà (< *(dʰ)ǵʰm-eh₂-n-), with uncertain root extension
  74. ^ would have represented a direct n-stem singulative; there is no sign of a form **mô anywhere, but it could have been corrected to *manô based on the weak stem *man-; this form might have served as the basis for *maną, however it cannot account for the gemination of *mann-
  75. ^ it's possible the form goes back an o-grade u-stem adjective *món-us, oblique *mon-wé- (similar to SA mánu with the less common oblique forms mánva-, which however represents earlier *mén-us, *mén-we-), mirroring a similar development to *þunuz, oblique *þunn- < *þunw- from earlier *ténh₂-us/*tn̥h₂-wé-, however this still should have left a nominative *man(n)uz, which might or might not be attested by Tacitus as Mannus (it could also represent Germanic *Mannaz), which does also mirror SA Mánu in a similar meaning
  76. ^ with pretonic shortening of the resulting long vowel, as in *sunuz < *suH-nús
  77. ^ probably originally meant "mom" in view of AG ammá ("mother")
  78. ^ if this to be read correctly, might have been influenced by *aþalą; alternatively, it might point to an original paradigm *aþô, oblique *attan-
  79. ^ from *ba- the e/z-grade of *bō ("male relative")
  80. ^ the -i-/-j- seen in reflexes is probably a secondary hiatus filler, if it had been present we would expect OE *bēia not *bōia as seen in personal names; otherwise, the word is a post-umlaut creation
  81. ^ the lack of umlaut in OE favors the former construction, it would also parallel *fadurwijô
  82. ^ possibly dissimilated from *swaswǭ(?), from earlier *swos + *swe/*swo
  83. ^ an important word, considering the level of derivation; also possesses an underlying meaning of "inheritance, property", which is to be expected as important for noblity
  84. ^ *ad- is not attested, meaning it was leveled out or never existed in the first place, though it is expected
  85. ^ with secondary functional o-grade (as in strong class 6 verbs of a similar root structure), an o-grade/"vṛddhi" relational formation
  86. ^ the rank below noble (*aþu/ilingaz), but above freemen/farmers/tradesmen (*karlaz)
  87. ^ in which case related to *erknaz ("expensive, holy, pure(-born)") and *ermunaz/*irmina- (with collective u/i-vacillation)
  88. ^ in which case related to *erǭ ("fight, struggle"); this would make sense, as "fighters/warriors" are usually considered the middle class, above farmers, below nobles/rulers; since, however, all freemen were expected to be able to fight, this would imply a rather dedicated warrior class, the class that did not go back to farming when the fighting was done, described by Tacitus as basically "doing nothing" when there was no fight to be had
  89. ^ the meaning is one's best guess at the moment, u/i-infixal derivation usually seems to have a collective force; further, clearly the word existed, but its only attested in Germanic at an early time period (in Runic inscriptions), so it was either lost by the time of the attested daughter languages, or perhaps it meant something else entirely, possibly it was truly a tribal name, meaning "the (preeminent) Earls", based off the simple *erlaz, but again this is uncertain
  90. ^ the rank above the unfree "servants, slaves" but below "earls" and "aþelings", probably working the land with little property themselves
  91. ^ at least OE seems to continue a form *kerlaz, which could be explained as an ablaut variant, or due to influence from *erlaz
  92. ^ ON konungr either represents an independent formation, whereby this word is not of PGmc appurtenance, or points to a u/i-extended suffix: *kunungaz/*kuninga-
  93. ^ the word did not explicitly mean "king" in PGmc, it rather meant "chieftain" or "prince", which can come from either of two formations: *kuniz ("son, offspring") or *kuniz ("royal < being of (high) birth") in which case it would mean "son or relative of the king", this could also explain the ON suffix -ungr, which would be influenced by the word ungr ("young"), cf. an Eddic poem which relates konungr meaning "young sprout/son", as if konr + ungr; or it could be from *kunją ("kin, clan") in which case it would mean the "head of a clan/kin group"
  94. ^ ON replaced it with lausingi, "loosed (one)"
  95. ^ originally denoting an agent/servant/minister, likely to a lord, whose duty was to help run his household/affairs
  96. ^ West Germanic can point to *frawô or *frawjô, but ON Freyr is strong (< *frawjaz), already diverging from a shared reconstruction; additionally there is no sign of umlaut
  97. ^ either legitimately from *frawjô or a hiatus filler like -h- in fraho
  98. ^ Gothic distinguishes skalks (= AG doũlos ("(born) slave")) against þius (= AG paidárion ("young slave") and oikétēs ("household slave")), the latter possibly implying someone made a slave. To add some confusion, the other Germanic languages attest a third word *þrawilaz ("thrall, slave") (not **þragilaz). In an attempt to understand this, we probably have to assume that Germanic society distinguished either how someone became a slave, or what their duties/jobs were. On the etymological side: *skalkaz appears to belong to words that mean "bad, wrong", which might imply either a criminal or enemy, but since it was used in GO to describe those who might have been born slaves, it would seem to denote that being a slave itself made one "wrong, bad", ie. "not of the good-/free-classes"; therefore, this might be the closest word to actually meaning slave (probably)
  99. ^ a late formation, if it had been early it would have become *þekkaz < *tek-nós; otherwise we would have to reconstruct a root for the verb and derivation as *tegʰ- which would be of non-IE origin
  100. ^ the proper Proto-Germanic word for "king", as it's the only word that appears in all three branches with that meaning, therefore *kunu/ingaz is late, or held another meaning entirely
  101. ^ *þewaz seems to hint at household duties, but also denotes slaves that were made, ie. captured (in raids/war); further, it derives from a root *tewh₂- ("to guard, watch over, shepherd", cf. Latin tueor ("to observe, watch over")), which might seem difficult to reconcile in terms of meaning, however it fits the semantic development of Latin servus ("slave, servant"), which De Vaan gives as coming from a root *ser-u- ("to guard, shepherd"; p. 559). This would fit nicely with the more primary meaning of the verb *þewāną ("to constrain; to enslave", as noted by Kroonen, p. 541), which implies the early semantics associated with the word was "to herd, drive" > "to constrain, enslave", therefore fitting nicely with the GO implications of þius.
  102. ^ *þrawilaz comes from either *þrawō ("missing, lacking > longing?") or *þrawjaną ("to miss, lack (, need?)"), which became ON þreyja ("to long for, desire, yearn after") but OHG drouwen/drewen ("to threaten, scold, rebuke"), where it looks like West Germanic developed the semantics of "to miss, mistake" > "to fault, blame, scold (someone)". With these meanings in mind, it seems the meaning of *þrawilaz was "lacker, needer" (in which case someone forced into slavery by need/inability/debt/destitution) or perhaps a criminal, somone blamed for a crime for which the punishment was slavery. It is unclear to one at the moment.
  103. ^ the OS and OHG forms below show aberrant -g-, which is secondary for -w-, as in *jugunþ- < *juwunþ-; see also OS þregian = OHG drouwen/drewen
  104. ^ the head of a *druhtiz; although of what nature the *druhtinaz and *druhtiz were is uncertain: in GO it is strictly of a military nature, while in the other daughter languages it can have a non-military context;
  105. ^ probably originally *druhtanaz
  106. ^ certainly denoted an inner room/space, probably also denoted a "private" room, ie. not in the open or "public" spaces of a dwelling
  107. ^ it's hard to pinpoint the exact semantics, the underlying meaning is "property" or "estate", but the specifics are hard to discern, whether originally landed property itself, the estate on the land, or one's general property/goods: the derived verb *buþlōną (ON bóla; OF (mēn-)bōdelia) implies leasing land, while the verb *buþlijaną (ON bœl) implies leasing or lending (property) in general; perhaps it originally referred to allotments of land, or property as passed on through inheritance, then transferable property; although, in view of the potential cognacy with AG phútlon, it is attractive to assume they both originally meant "crop, produce", with Germanic shifting to "goods, property" then "property, estate"
  108. ^ formally it fits perfectly; the semantics are hard to reconcile, but it's necesarry to keep in mind the root *bʰeh₂u- ("to become") seems to have shifted to AG "to grow"
  109. ^ as far as one can find, houses of the time generally kept livestock inside the home, for protection and incidentally warmth
  110. ^ in older times, it simply meant "room, chamber" but probably by PGmc times, it had narrowed to "meeting room" or "public space (of a house)", for guests/retainers, especially of the larger houses of lords/kings
  111. ^ in view of the AG cognate, probably originally used to refer to a type of tent
  112. ^ Kroonen lists the meaning as "hillock", presumably based on the seemingly-related form *hubilaz ("hill"), however the underlying meaning is "meeting room/dwelling space") which is hard to reconcile with such a meaning; the only support for such a meaning would be the idea that Germanic tribes worshipped their gods on a hill, which isn't so farfetched, as Tacitus relates the Germanic peoples didn't enclose their gods in building or statues, but in nature, such as groves; even if this were the case, we would expect to find some trace of the supposed original meaning
  113. ^ perhaps to be connected with *hausaz ("skull") in a shared meaning "place (to house something)", reflecting earlier *ḱ/kewH-s-?; also, except for the laryngeal and root-final -s-, it is particularly close to the root *(s)kewdʰ- ("to conceal, cover") found in*hudjǭ ("hut")
  114. ^ mentioned as often connected to AG gū́pē by Beekes (p. 292), which if were true would suggest a non-IE origin, as the short vowel of the Germanic word can't be reconciled with the long vowel of the Greek; alternatively, the Germanic word could represent a root *gewbʰ-, for which cognates are lacking
  115. ^ probably originally meant the habitable/inhabited area of a dwelling, where the family resided, as opposed to storage or animals"
  116. ^ cf. (probably) Celtic *damniyos ("material"), together might reflect *dém-ōr/*dm̥-né-
  117. ^ it's tempting to combine all the forms, presuming a neuter plural *augan-durō, where GO and OF(?) formed a new neuter singulative, and OE and OHG reinterpreted the plural as a feminine singular to match *durō; cf. the AG compound pró-thuron ("front-door; porch")
  118. ^ Germanic likely inherited a singular feminine *durō ("door"), a neuter singular *durą ("gate"), and its original dual *durī ("double doors" or more likely "door-way"); later, the dual was reanalyzed as *durīz, a feminine i-stem plural, to which naturally was developed a singular i-stem *duriz
  119. ^ as opposed to *wajjuz ("wall (fortification)")
  120. ^ this etymology is more likely: the original meaning was "house" > ("room" >) "wall", which are pretty close in terms of colexification
  121. ^ the meaning "twisting" probably comes from tying stakes together in palisades, or wattle-type constructions
  122. ^ this could explain all the forms, including the Celtic, albeit with leveling
  123. ^ it is much more likely that ON hross and OHG (h)ros continue the original form, especially given the metathesis occurs in the North Sea languages, which are especially prone to it, especially Old English
  124. ^ appears to be a substantivized to-stem, similar to *hlassą ("cart-load" < "what is loaded") < *klh̥́t-tom < *klh̥₂t-tós
  125. ^ not *sod-, this would only give Germanic *sat-
  126. ^ can be derived regularly from a lost o-grade *flaus- or *flaut-, although of the two, the latter is more likely, therefore the original form must have been *flaustrą ("floating thing"); alternatively from *fleustrą with change of vowel by influence with *flawją
  127. ^ possibly related to *nogʷ-, if so, the original meaning was "dugout boat" from "what is bare, empty"
  128. ^ monosyllabic -ōu > -ō-, like *k(w)ōz ("cow")?
  129. ^ in view of the semantics of *skipōną ("to put in order, arrange"), must have originally meant ships for which construction was more complex
  130. ^ probably a loan from Celtic *bru(s)nyā, as it's stated the Germanic tribes originally didn't wear armor; also, pre-Germanic *brusnyeh₂ would only give *brusnijō or *bruznijō > *brunnijō
  131. ^ ** in GO, translates AG mákhaira, rhomphaía, so it must have been single-bladed at least
  132. ^ within Germanic it could be a secondary functional o-grade of *mekaną ("to support, reinforce")
  133. ^ the head of a *druhtiz; also probably what Tacitus meant by "generals"/"ducēs"
  134. ^ probably originally *druhtanaz
  135. ^ probably the term for a lord's/leader's personal group of followers, to whom they distributed gifts for bravery
  136. ^ originally a ti-stem action noun, it's possible that it moved in on the semantic space of earlier *ga-draugaz ("band"), as a term for "retinue, companions"
  137. ^ PGmc allowed -m- to remain before voiceless dental fricatives, cf. *numþiz("taking")
  138. ^ from a root *ḱems-/*ḱens- that originally meant "to say, proclaim, order" (SA śaṃs- ("to proclaim")), then "to arrange, order (by saying/telling)", (AG kósmos ("order"); LA cēnseō ("to estimate; to recommend"); alternatively the root has been suggest to represent *ḱóm-sh₂-eh₂ ("binding together"), which isn't out of the realm of possibility: consider that PGmc still possessed *ham- as a (much reduced/fossilized) variant to *ga- (OLF-LA ham-edii < *ham-aiþijōz)
  139. ^ title of Oden, but probably originally of Týr or Þór
  140. ^ OE mostly uses the word to refer to non-English forces/armies, instead referring to English armies as ferds (< *fardiz ("expedition, traveling")) this might be a holdover from their "expeditions" into England in the first place
  141. ^ the *gund- seen in personal names, which is less likely to be *gundaz ("infection" < "wound")
  142. ^ was it originally masculine, femininized due to semantically similar terms?

References

Wikious
Boobota
Sagapedia