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English
Apneusticlarva of chironomid midge, showing the absence of spiracles along the length of its flank
Davies, R. G. (1988) Outlines of Entomology, 7th edition, London: Chapman and Hall, →ISBN, page 73:
The holopneustic type of system has all ten pairs of spiracles open, ... while the apneustic type has no functional spiracles, respirationoccurring through the general body surface or gills. The tracheal systems with few or no open spiracles are found in aquatic and endoparasitic insects ... non-functional spiracles are closed or reduced to minute scars, and each is connected to the longitudinal tracheae by a solid stigmatic cord. The latter helps to anchor the tracheal system in position and serves to pull out the old tracheal linings when the insect moults.
