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Unknown according to De Vaan. The old hypothesis deriving it from Proto-Indo-European*kwh₂et-(“to ferment, become sour”) has the problem that *w isn't supposed to disappear in Latin (the expected outcome would start with qua- and not ca-). In this case, the cognates listed under *kwh₂et- are perhaps loans from the same substrate source as the Latin term.
‘‘Let me squeeze full udders, may my cheese repay me with money, and may the wicker strainer give a passage to the liquid whey.’’ (A shepherd’s prayer to Pales.)
→ Old Irish: cáise (see there for further descendants)
→ Proto-Brythonic: *kọs (see there for further descendants)
→ Proto-West Germanic: *kāsī (see there for further descendants)
References
^ De Vaan, Michiel (2008) “cāseus”, in Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages (Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series; 7), Leiden, Boston: Brill, →ISBN, pages 96-7
^ Ferguson, Ronnie. 2006. A linguistic history of Venice. Florence: Olschki. 254.
Further reading
“caseus”, in Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short (1879) A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press
“caseus”, in Charlton T. Lewis (1891) An Elementary Latin Dictionary, New York: Harper & Brothers
caseus in Charles du Fresne du Cange’s Glossarium Mediæ et Infimæ Latinitatis (augmented edition with additions by D. P. Carpenterius, Adelungius and others, edited by Léopold Favre, 1883–1887)
caseus in Gaffiot, Félix (1934) Dictionnaire illustré latin-français, Hachette.
“caseus”, in Harry Thurston Peck, editor (1898), Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, New York: Harper & Brothers