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Borrowings into NH
Austronesian donor
- Extremely similar to Proto-Oceanic *otok (“to cut, sever”). However, we can't (yet) reconstruct a final *k for PNNH, which makes any connection suspicious.
- May not actually be reconstructible.
- From PMP or from Malay specifically (for example, Philippine reflexes strictly mean garlic). Entered Halmahera at least before PTT lost finals.
- May not actually be reconstructible; reconstruction at PNH level entirely depends upon Voorhoeve's hypothesis that Old West Makian lost initial velars.
- Regardless, from Austronesian (*qasiN) with *N- prefixation.
- From Austronesian with *N- prefixation. Compare Proto-Oceanic *qate.
- We presume this form, but all NH terms seem borrowed from Ternate (except possibly Tidore and Galela). Internally, the most that could be reconstructed (assuming Galela is independently descended) is *'gu.ti.
- From Late Old or Classical Malay kawin, with irregular final ŋ.
- Possibly from Old/Middle Javanese kalana (c.f. Javanese klana, from older form kelana), meaning "a fierce character, originally a prince from overseas" and "a wandering adventurer of noble birth from abroad". The initial stress reconstruction may have been borrowed with the final vowel, which would then have been re-interpreted as an echo vowel.
*'ma.nok ("paniki, kalong, flying fox") - PNNH
*mo.'la.yu(n) ("Malay people") - PNNH
- Reconstructibility depends heavily on whether Modole n is inherited and not an accretion, and the reconstruction level may be even lower than PNNH.
*'u.Li ("to steer; steering wheel") - PTT
Other External Relations
- Cognate with West Makian baku (“sago”), which Voorhoeve lists as a loan from East Makian baku (“sago, sago tree”). Cognates are not found (yet) in other North Halmaheran languages.
- This term may in fact be only reconstructible to the PNNH level (if West Makian is a borrowing from Ternate, Tidore, or PTT). Teljeur lists South Halmaheran cognates Gane bulang and East Makian bulang, but there's also Sawai mfus, all meaning "white".
*'fa.te ("tree") - PNH
- PTAP *at ("tree") (Usher 2020); *hate ("tree") (Schapper, et al. 2017). This is probably just a coincidence, as almost no other connections are apparent. The direction of the borrowing would more likely be PNH to PTAP, as the reverse would suggest a PNH form such as **ate or **hate, both of which would become **ate in Ternate and Tidore and **(a/e)te or **h(a/e)te in West Makian.
*ka.'u.na ("dog") - PSahuic
- Likely cognate with Proto-Sangiric *kapuna ("dog"), suggesting an original PSahuic form *ka.'p1u.na. This would indicate that early PSahuic still had *p1 as a phoneme, before it developed into *w, and that this process occurred after the change of *k → *ʔ (else we'd see Waioli 'auna).
*'u.bor ("female (red) eclectus) - PNNH
*'ʔu.fis (to flow, stream) - PNH
- If PNH /ʔ/ is actually , then this might relate to East Makian kihis (“flow, flood”).
*'wa.ŋe(r) ("day, sun") - PNNH
- May be compared to Proto-West Bomberai *waŋg... ("day"), listed by Usher (2020).
Borrowings from NH
- Excluding those from Ternate or Tidore.
*'du.kon ("volcano") - PNNH
- Into East Makian dukon (“to erupt (of a volcano)”). No West Makian term for volcano is listed in the dictionaries; the East Makian term may be from an unattested Old West Makian or from PNNH.
*'ŋo.lot ("sea") - PNH
- Into Sawai wolat, Gane wolat, East Makian wolat ~ olat. The West Makian term may indeed be a reborrowing from South Halmahera (East Makian in particular). Either each South Halmaheran language listed here underwent vowel dissimilation or the original PNH term was in fact *'ŋo.lat, with vowel assimilation in every branch (very plausible).
*p1a.it or *p2a.it ("to dig") - PNH
- Into East Makian pait (“to dig”). Whether from Old West Makian (before the loss of the final) or from another branch is uncertain.
*'so.p1ok ("fruit") - PNH
- Into East Makian sapo, sepo (“fruit”). Likely from Old West Makian or a Pre-Ternate-Tidore form (before *p → *f). Either East Makian underwent vowel dissimilation or the original PNH term was in fact *'sa.p1ok, with vowel assimilation in every branch (very plausible). Also compare the possible Modole hawo'o.
*'yo.bot ("swollen") - Pre-PTT
- Into North Moluccan Malay yobot (“swollen”), Sawai yobet (“wounded”), (Waigitang-Waikyon) East Makian yobat (“wounded”). PNNH may have had both a *ḋa.bos ("swollen") and *ḋa.bot ("wounded"). Supposing both underwent vowel assimilation in Pre-PTT, it's plausible that both terms merged into a single Pre-PTT *ḋo.bot ("swollen"). Indeed, we have Tidore yobo (“swollen, bruised”) and Ternate hobo (“swollen”), and no distinct, similar-looking word for "wound" in either language. Other NH branches maintain the distinction.
Internal Reconstruction
*kat ("man") - PNH
A direct descendant may be found in West Makian at (following Voorhoeve's postulation that Old West Makian lost initial velars). Additionally, appears in several reconstructed terms: *'ro.kat ("husband"), *'p1e.kat ("wife"), and *'Co.kat ("evil spirit, ghost, vampire, werewolf").
*ŋo- - PNNH
Some sort of personal prefix. This prefix is found on all the first and second person PNNH pronouns, but also on the term *ŋo.'p1e.kat ~ *ŋo.p1o.'ḋe.ka ("wife", "woman"), and possibly on *'ŋo.p1ak ("child") as well.