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Since a term for wild apple is unlikely to have been borrowed given the Hurrian attestation and Urartian source for the Armenian word, the domesticate's path of spread is relevant in discriminating between a direct Dagestani > Hurrian and an indirect Unknown > (Dagestani, Hurrian) origin. Although a role of the native Caucasian species Malus orientalis in the domestication of Caucasian and even European cultivars of Malus domestica had previously been suggested,[4][5][6][7] it was not until 2012 that such introgression was genetically confirmed,[8] the admixture being dated to approximately 4,500 years ago.[9] Since this preceded the earliest secure attestation of apples in Mesopotamia, this opened the possibility that M. domestica arrived in North Mesopotamia from the Caucasus. In 2022 a study showed that Armenian landraces descend largely from native M. orientalis; the presence of some lowland ancestry may indicate a Dagestani role in the spread of the domesticated apple, but without a larger sample size, admixture/diversification dates could not be reliably computed, so the Armenian domestication event could date to a much later time (as with the Iranian landraces).[10]
^ Kapancjan, G. A. (1951) “Хурритские слова армянского языка”, in Archív Orientalni (in Russian), volume 19, numbers 3–4, page 588 of 579–605 = Kapancjan, G. A. (1951) “Хурритские слова армянского языка”, in HSSṘ GA Teġekagir hasarakakan gitutʻyunneri (in Russian), number 5, pages 33–34
^ Thorsø, Rasmus (2023) Prehistoric loanwords in Armenian: Hurro-Urartian, Kartvelian, and the unclassified substrate, PhD dissertation, Leiden University, page 13
^ Thorsø, Rasmus (2023) Prehistoric loanwords in Armenian: Hurro-Urartian, Kartvelian, and the unclassified substrate, PhD dissertation, Leiden University, page 20
^ Schmitt, Thomas (2007 April 17) “Molecular biogeography of Europe: Pleistocene cycles and postglacial trends”, in Frontiers in Zoology, volume 4, number 11, →ISSN
^ Volk, Gayle M. et al. (2009 July 1) “Capturing the diversity of wild Malus orientalis from Georgia, Armenia, Russia and Turkey”, in Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, volume 134, number 4, →ISSN, pages 453-459
^ Höfer, Monika et al. (2012 November 18) “Assessment of phenotypic variation of Malus orientalis in the North Caucasus region”, in Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, volume 60, →ISSN, pages 1463-1477
^ Cornille, Amandine, Giraud, Tatiana, Gladieux, Pierre (2013 June 28) “Crop-to-wild gene flow and spatial genetic structure in the closest wild relatives of the cultivated apple”, in Evolutionary Applications, volume 6, number 5, →ISSN, pages 737-748
^ Cornille, Amandine et al. (2012 May 10) “New Insight into the History of Domesticated Apple: Secondary Contribution of the European Wild Apple to the Genome of Cultivated Varieties”, in PLoS Genetics, →ISSN
^ Bina, Hamid et al. (2022 August 19) “Evidence of an additional centre of apple domestication in Iran, with contributions from the Caucasian crab apple Malus orientalis Uglitzk. to the cultivated apple gene pool”, in Molecular Ecology, volume 31, number 21, →ISSN, pages 5581-5601
^ Garsoïan, Nina G. (1989) The Epic Histories Attributed to P‘awstos Buzand (Buzandaran Patmut‘iwnk‘), Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, page 199
Ačaṙean, Hračʻeay (1971–1979) “խնձոր”, in Hayerēn armatakan baṙaran (in Armenian), 2nd edition, a reprint of the original 1926–1935 seven-volume edition, Yerevan: University Press
Bläsing, Uwe (2019) “Die armenischen Pflanzennamen in Peter Simon Pallas’ Flora Rossica. Eine Studie zu Etymologie und sprachlicher Interaktion”, in U. Bläsing, J. Dum-Tragut, T.M. van Lint, editors, Armenian, Hittite, and Indo-European Studies: A Commemoration Volume for Jos J.S. Weitenberg (Hebrew University Armenian Studies; 15) (in German), Leuven: Peeters, page 19
Diakonoff, Igor M. (1985) “Hurro-Urartian Borrowings in Old Armenian”, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 105, number 4, pages 597–603
Diakonoff, Igor M., Starostin, Sergei A. (1986) Hurro-Urartian as an Eastern Caucasian Language (Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft; 12), Munich: R. Kitzinger, page 24
Kitazumi, Tomoki (2013) “Zum Problem der Gleichung heth. Ḫayaša- = armen. haykʿ”, in Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft (in German), volume 163, pages 512–514
Kogan, Leonid (2011) “Proto-Semitic Phonetics and Phonology”, in Weninger, Stefan, editor, The Semitic Languages. An International Handbook (Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft – Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science; 36), Berlin: De Gruyter, →ISBN, pages 68–69
Löw, Immanuel (1924) Die Flora der Juden (in German), volume 3, Wien und Leipzig: R. Löwit, page 234
Mkrtčjan, N. A. (1983) “Субстратные названия растений в армянском языке”, in Древний Восток (in Russian), number 4, Yerevan: Academy Press, pages 27–28
