Appendix:Egyptian verbs

Egyptian is an Afroasiatic language with a complex verbal system, some of whose exact forms and categories remain under debate by modern scholars. This page documents the grammatical details of the earlier (Old and Middle) Egyptian verbal system, including some of the differences of opinion on the subject.

There is a large set of intransitive verbs traditionally called adjective verbs, used to indicate a quality or the entrance into a quality. Most adjectives in Egyptian — potentially all but the nisbas — are in fact participles of adjective verbs. Thus, the adjective wr (“great”) is in fact simply the perfective participle of the adjective verb wrr (“to be(come) great”).

Whether the basic meaning of adjective verbs is to indicate a quality or the entrance into a quality (‘to be …’ or ‘to become …’) is still unsettled; both interpretations can be found in modern Egyptology, as the choice depends on the interpretation of the Egyptian tense–aspect–mood (TAM) system.

In the forms of the suffix conjugation and verbal adjectives, Egyptian verbs inflect for voice, mood, aspect, and relative tense, but not absolute tense. The imperative of some verbs can inflect for number, the verbal adjectives can inflect for gender and number, and the stative inflects for person, gender, and number. The infinitival forms are uninflected.

The infinitival forms comprise those forms of the verb that are uninflected and unmarked for TAM. Some authors consider them all verbal nouns, but the complementary infinitive is sometimes recognized as a basically adverbial form.

The infinitive serves as a general verbal noun indicating the action meant by the verbal root. As such, it can be used syntactically like any other noun. However, unlike other nouns, the infinitive is always singular; it is also always masculine. The infinitive is often used in headings and occasionally used instead of a finite verb form in narration.

The subject and object of the infinitive can optionally be expressed in differing ways. For the subject the following constructions are used:

• infinitive (…) jn noun
• infinitive (…) n(j) independent-pronoun
• infinitive (…) independent-pronoun

The following constructions are used for the object:

• infinitive (…) noun
• infinitive (…) dependent-pronoun

In addition, both subject and object can be expressed by a direct genitive construction:

• infinitive noun
• infinitive.suffix-pronoun

If the subject is expressed by a direct genitive, the object must be expressed otherwise, and if the subject is expressed otherwise, the object must be expressed by a direct genitive. If there is no subject, the object is expressed by a direct genitive. Intransitive verbs normally express the subject by a direct genitive, and transitive verbs can express it either way.

The negatival complement is used following certain negative verbs to negate certain verb forms. Only suffix pronouns can intervene between the first verb and the negatival complement; all other words must follow the negatival complement.

The infinitive of tm (“to not be, to not do”) followed by the negatival complement forms the negation of the infinitive.

The imperative m of jmj (“to not be, to not do”) followed by either the negatival complement or by the negatival complement of jrj (“to do”) followed by a verbal noun forms the negation of the imperative.

The subjunctive jm of jmj followed by the negatival complement forms the negation of the subjunctive when it has optative or jussive meaning; the subjunctive of tm followed by the negatival complement forms the negation of the subjunctive in dependent clauses.

Similarly, the imperfective of tm followed by the negatival complement forms the negation of the imperfective in dependent clauses.

The potentialis tm.kꜣ of tm followed by the negatival complement is occasionally used as the negation of the potentialis.

Any verbal adjective of tm followed by the negatival complement (or rarely the infinitive) forms the negation of that kind of verbal adjective.

The complementary infinitive is an adverbial complement used only after another form of the selfsame verb, either to convey some particular connotation, e.g. nj ms.n.tw.j js msyt (“I was not born by (ordinary) birth”), or to stress the verbal action, e.g. wbn.k wbnt (“You rise rising”).

The imperative is used for commands. The subject (entity commanded) is ordinarily in the second person but can be in the third person for negated intransitive imperatives. Written Egyptian shows that the imperative could inflect for number, and Coptic evidence suggests that spoken Egyptian may have inflected some imperative forms for gender as well. The object of the imperative is usually expressed, and the subject rarely so; both take the dependent form when they are personal pronouns.

The label ‘pseudoverbal’ is broadly applied to those forms of the verb that most often syntactically function as adverbial predicates. This includes the stative and the periphrastic verb forms.

The stative, also called variously the resultative, old perfective, or pseudoparticiple, expresses a state of being resulting from a previously completed action. The stative inflects for person, gender, and number. For intransitive verbs it has an active meaning, whereas for transitive verbs its meaning is passive.

Every verb has between two and six consonantal radicals that form its root (which is its citation form). Based on the patterns of this root, verbs are classified into root classes, and verbs of different root classes generally have different conjugational paradigms. The root classes and their paradigms are given below, using a sample verb from each class. Transitive verbs are used wherever possible in order to show the passive forms.

Strong biliteral verbs. Cannot have -j as final radical.

Non-geminating biliteral verbs (or second-weak verbs). Must have -j as final radical. Inflection in Middle Egyptian is apparently the same as 2-lit., but non-geminating; in Old Egyptian there were further differences.

Strong triliteral verbs with identical second and third radical.

Strong triliteral verbs.

Cannot have -j or -w as final radical.

Must have -j or -w as final radical.

Third-weak verbs. Must have -j or -w as final radical.

In his Inflection of the Verb in the Pyramid Texts, Allen additionally identifies a ‘prefixing’ 3ae inf. subclass which displays a prefix j. in the imperative, the stative, the active participle, the relative forms, and some forms of the active sḏm.f. Some verbs of this subclass are geminating and some are not. Presumably this subclass no longer existed after Old Egyptian.

Strong quadriliteral verbs with identical second and third radical. No base stem.

Strong quadriliteral verbs. No geminated stem. Most are formed from reduplicated 2-lit. roots.

Fourth-weak verbs. Must have -j or -w as final radical. Non-geminating more common than geminating. None are formed by reduplication.

In his Inflection of the Verb in the Pyramid Texts, Allen additionally identifies a ‘prefixing’ 4ae inf. subclass which displays a prefix j. in most formal categories, an infinitive in -t, and gemination in the passive sḏm.f. This subclass is otherwise non-geminating. Presumably this subclass merged with the non-geminating subclass after Old Egyptian if they were not already identical.

Strong quinquiliteral verbs. No geminated stem. Always intransitive. All are formed from reduplicated 3-lit. roots.

Fifth-weak verbs. Some authors list them as a class of their own; others, as part of 5-lit or 2ae gem. No geminated stem. All are formed from reduplicated 3ae inf. roots. They apparently conjugate like reduplicated 2ae inf. roots.

Strong hexaliteral verbs. No geminated stem. Always intransitive. All are formed from reduplicated 3-lit. roots. Old Egyptian only, and archaic even then.

Prefixed with s-. Always transitive.

Causative of 2-lit., or, in Old Egyptian, of 3-lit. with first radical j- or w-. No geminated stem. Metathesis of the original root is common.

Causative of 2ae gem. or reduplication of caus. 2-lit.

Causative of 3-lit. No geminated stem.

Causative of 3ae inf.

Causative of 3ae gem. Most authors consider these unattested.

Causative of 4-lit. No geminated stem.

Causative of 4ae inf. No geminated stem.