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Old Tupi phonemes as they are represented by the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The Tupian alphabet used is the one developed by Antônio Lemos Barbosa and slightly modified by Eduardo de Almeida Navarro.
^ Onset allophone of , in free variation. Present as a distinguished phoneme in a few words in Rio Negro's Nheengatu, like jí(“axe”) and jibuya(“boa”).
↑ 9.09.1Many authors disagree this nasal counterpart existed, but that doesn't explain words like nhũ and apekũ: it couldn't be a coda /m/ or /n/, since nouns couldn't end in a consonant.
^ Merged with /i/ or /u/ in many regions. Completely lost in modern Rio Negro's Nheengatu
^ Some scholars disagree this sound existed in Old Tupi, saying it came from a misundertanding of the Europeans at the time and that was used in all cases.
References
↑ 1.01.11.2Antônio Lemos Barbosa (1956) Curso de tupi antigo: gramática, exercícios, textos (in Portuguese), Rio de Janeiro: Livraria São José, page 26
↑ 3.03.1Aryon Dall'Igna Rodrigues (1958) Phonologie der Tupinambá-Sprache (in German), Hamburg: Universität Hamburg
↑ 4.04.14.24.3Antônio Augusto Souza Mello (2000 March 17) “Reconstruções Lexicais e Cognatos” (chapter III), in Estudo histórico da família linguística tupi-guarani: aspectos fonológicos e lexicais (in Portuguese), Florianópolis: UFSC
↑ 5.05.1Aline da Cruz (2011) Fonologia e gramática do Nheengatú: a língua geral falada pelos povos Baré, Warekena e Baniwa (in Portuguese), Amsterdam: LOT, →ISBN
↑ 7.07.1Ruth Maria Fonini Monserrat (2003) “O tupi do século XVIII (tupi-médio)” (chapter 10), in José Ribamar Bessa Freire, Maria Carlota Rosa, editors, Línguas gerais: política lingüística e catequese na América do Sul no período colonial (in Portuguese), Rio de Janeiro: EDUERJ, →ISBN, pages 185-194
↑ 11.011.1Original research based on: Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius (1867) “Diccionario de Verbos: portuguez tupi-austral e alemâo”, in Wörtersammlung Brasilianischer Sprachen (Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika’s zumal Brasiliens; II) (overall work in Portuguese and German), Leipzig: Friedrich Fleischer
Further reading
Bárbara Heliodora Lemos de Pinheiro Santos (2020) Empréstimos lexicais do português para a Língua Geral: século XVI ao XXI (in Portuguese), Brasília: UnB, page 190