Proto-Northwest Caucasian reconstructions by Colarusso (1989)[1] and Chirikba (1996):[2]
| No. | English gloss | Proto-Northwest Caucasian |
|---|---|---|
| 18 | sky, upward/downward | *zo, *zo-ʏo, *zo-ɣo-n- |
| 19 | you (plural) | *so |
| 20 | pig | *ḥuqa |
| 21 | skin | *co |
| 22 | to slide, crawl | *-ćʰu-xo- |
| 23 | ox | *ću |
| 24 | house-(debate, decree) | *ǧuna-(śo-) |
| 25 | two | *tʼqʼo |
| 26 | difficulty | *qyən |
| 27 | innocence | *χə-yà |
| 28 | general locative on NPs | *w-gə, *w-ga, *-ga |
| 29 | bread | *y-čʰa, *y-čʰàqʼo, *w-čʰə̀-qʼo, *čʰə̀-qʼo |
| 30 | hundred | *śa, *w-śa |
| 31 | old | *źə, *w-źə |
| 32 | lovely | *nə̀-χa, *nə̀-w-χa |
| 33 | shoulder | *p-ʎə-ʔà, *p-ʎə-ʔə̀, *w-ʎə-ʔà |
| 34 | ten | *pʼ-źə̀, *w-źə̀, *w-źà |
| 35 | year | *ƛà-s, *w-ƛà, *ƛə̀-ku-ś, *ku-śə-ƛə̀ |
| 36 | shelter, locus of an action | *-y-śa, *-w-śa |
| 37 | shelter | *-y-xa |
| 38 | word | *y-śə̀-ʢa, *mə-ha-śà, *ha-w-śə-ʢá |
| 39 | bear | *mə-śà, *mə-w-śà, *mə-w-śə̀ |
| 40 | three | *y-χə, *y-χa, *χə |
| 41 | nine | *bə-w-ʏə̀, *bə-y-ʏə̀, *wə-y-ʏə̀ |
| 42 | horse | *čʰə, *y-čʰə, *y-čʰa, *čʰə-də, *čʰa-da |
| 43 | butter | *tʼ-χu, *(tʼ-)χu |
| 44 | churn | *tʼ-χu-w-à-ƛa, *tʼ-χu-y-à-ƛa, *tʼ-χu-à-ƛa |
| 45 | a mass (a pre-verbal particle, henceforth 'pV') | *-hə-, *-w-hə-a |
| 46 | chest, breast | *bəqʼà, *(y-)bəqʼà |
| 47 | good | *čʼə, *-w-čʼa-, *w-čʼə |
| 48 | waist | *mə-ǧè, *mə-y-ǧa, *pʼə-ǧə |
| 49 | eight | *y-ɣə, *w-ɣa, *ɣa |
| 50 | benefactive pV, for | *-w-χa-, *-y-χa- |
| 51 | genetive of alienable possession | *-y-ʏə-, *-ʏa- |
| 52 | testicle (zero-grammatical class marker in all branches) | *ǧa |
| 53 | road | *w-ʏà, *mə-y-ʏà, *mə-w-ʏə̀ |
| 54 | pear | *w-qʰə̀, *y-qʰà, *qʰà |
| 55 | grave | *qʰa, *w-qʰə |
| 56 | new | *y-ćʼa, *ćʼa |
| 57 | liver | *w-cəʔà, *w-cə̀ʔa, *w-càʔə, *y-cəʔà |
| 58 | blue, gray | *šə-w-ʕa, *ʕa-, *w-ʕa |
| 59 | wood, stick (zero-grammatical class marker in all branches) | *(ʕan-)cʰa, *cʰa, *cʰə |
| 60 | arm | *ʔa |
| 61 | five | *w-ćχə, *y-ćχə, *w-ćχə |
| 62 | heart | *w-gə, *y-gə |
| 63 | man | *w-ǧə, *w-ǧa |
| 64 | slave (borrowing from Iranian) | *wir-ya-ka- |
| 65 | land, region | *χa, *w-χa |
| 66 | sea | *hə, *w-ha |
| 67 | to write | *-tʰə-χə-, *-w-χə-, *-w-ʔa-χə- |
| 68 | white | *w-šə, *šə |
| 69 | day | *mə-w-šà, *mə-šə̀ |
| 70 | to say | *-ǯə-qʼa-, *-w-qʼa-, *-cu-qʼa-, *-cu-w-qʼa- |
| 71 | to graze (as of cattle) | *-w-ḥəxə-, *ḥəxə- |
| 72 | to tend flocks | *-ʔà-w-xa-, *-ʔa-w-xà- |
| 73 | herd | *-x(a)- |
| 74 | to die, mortal | *-ƛə-ʔà-, *ƛə-ʔə̀, *-ƛə-ʔə̀-, *-w-ƛə-ʔə̀- |
| 75 | to cover | *-pʼʔa-w-qʼà-, *-pʼʔa-y-qʼə̀-, *-ḥa-w-qʼà- |
| 76 | to tie | *-pʰə-ğə-, *-pʰə-y-ğə-a- |
| 77 | to call to someone | *-pʰe-y-χà-, *-mə-y-χà- |
| 78 | to enter | *-ḥa-, *-w-ḥə- |
| 79 | to go, come | *-y-ća-, *-ća- |
| 80 | to hunt | *-ša-, *-w-šə-, *-w-ša- |
| 81 | trace | *ƛaqʼà |
| right | *żqʼà, *żʏà | |
| the-girl-little-past = she was a little girl | *a-sʷemcʼa-śʷ-qʼa | |
| 82 | water, river | *ʒə, *-ʒə-y-a-w-ʏa-, *pə-ʒə, *pə-ʒa |
| 83 | bone, frame | *pəʕə̀, *pəʕà, *w-pəʕà, *w-pəʕə̀ |
| 84 | to run | *-ʔəqà-, *-w-ʔəqə̀ |
| 85 | foster child | *-pa-w-ʕə̀-, *pa-w-ʕà, *-pa-y-ʕə̀-, *pa-ʕə̀, *pa-ʕà |
| 86 | to curve, bend | *-w-ḥa-, *-w-ḥə-, *-ḥə-qʼa-, *-w-ḥə-qʼa-, *-w-ḥə-qʼa- |
| 87 | to drink | *-w-ḥəʒə-a-, *-w-ḥəʒə- |
| 88 | brother | *hǯə, *y-hǯə, *y-hǯa |
| 89 | head | *ḥa-šə̀, *ḥa-šà, *ḥa-šə̀-ʏo, *ḥə̀, *ḥà |
| 90 | mountain (forest) | *ƛaḥà |
| 91 | to rain | *-ćʰ-yə-kə̀-, *-w-kə̀-, *-w-kə̀-a- |
| 92 | to eat | *-χčə-, *-w-χčə-, *-w-χčə-a-, *y-xčə-a |
| 93 | six | *χcə, *w-χcə |
| 94 | copper | *ha-yəχa |
| 95 | metal, iron | *w-ʏa, *w-ʏ-čʼa, *w-ʏə-čʼa |
| 96 | to ask, answer | *-pʰə-ćʼə-, *-ćʼə-ʏa- |
| 97 | to know | *-ćʼa-ʏà-, *-ćʼa- |
| 98 | woman | *xa-, *pa, *pə-xə̀, *pə-w-xə̀, *pə-y-xà, *w-sə̀mcʼa, *w-xə-śə̀mcʼa, *pə-w-xə̀-śəmcʼa, *pə-śə̀mcʼa, *pə-xə-śəmcʼa |
| 99 | famine | *mla |
| 100 | wolf | *w-l(p)a- |
| 101 | village | |
| 102 | to look | *-pʰə-ƛə-, *-ƛə-a-, *-pʰəƛə-a- |
| 103 | to give birth | *-ʎə-w-χə-, *-ʎə-χə-, *-ʎə-χə-a-, *-y-χə-a- |
| 104 | feces | *ćəχə̀, *-la-ćəχə̀-, *-wə-ćəχə-a- |
| 105 | to blaspheme | *-wə-cə-cəχà-, *-wə-cə̀χa-, *-la-wə-cəχà-, *-la-wə-cə̀χa-, *-la-cəχà- |
| 105 | insect | *ʒ́ə, *ʒ́a-a-ʒ́, *pə-ʒ́à |
| 106 | span, measure | *ʒ́a, *pə-ʒ́à |
| 107 | winter | *ʒ́ə, *pə-ʒ́ə̀, *pə-ʒ́à |
| 108 | vine | *ʒ́a, *pə-ʒ́à, *pə-ʒ́è |
| 109 | sharp(en) | *ćʼa, *pʼə-ćʼà |
| 110 | bird | *ćʼə̀, *pʼə-ćʼà |
| 111 | to splash | *-ćʼà-, *pʼə-ćʼə̀- |
| 112 | lie, falsehood | *mə̀ć(à), *pʼə-məć(à) |
| 113 | to ferment | *-ća-, *pʼə-ćà- |
| 114 | flesh | *ća, *pʼə-ćà |
| 115 | rennet stomach | *ća, *pʼə-ćà |
| No. | English | Common West Caucasian | Common Circassian | Ubykh | Common Abkhaz |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | hand | *q’a | *q’a | q’a-p’a | |
| 1. | hand | *ma | *ma | ||
| 2. | left side | *sama-g°ə | arma (Abx ?) | *arə-ma | |
| 3. | right side | *z°ə | *žá/ə | aź-q’a | *a(r)ə-ɣá(-ma) |
| 4. | leg/foot | *λá | *λa | λa-p’a | *šá-p’°ə |
| 5. | walk/go | *k’°a | *k’°a/ə | k’a | |
| 5. | walk/go | *ća | *ća | ||
| 6. | road, path | *məʕ°á | *ɣ°a-g°ə | məɣá | *məɦ°a |
| 7. | come | *q̄a-k’°a | j-k’á | *ɦa; *ɦa-jə | |
| 8. | turn (v.) | *za | *za | brā-za | *ħ°a-za ’to crawl’ |
| 9. | swim | *s°a/ə | *sə | ʒ́aśa (Abx) | *ʒə-śa |
| 10. | dirty | *ć’°ə | *ś’°a-jə | q’ə́-ć’°-q’a | *ħ°ən-ć’°ə ‘dirt’ |
| 11. | dust | *sap̄a | sapa (Circ) | *bəbə; *saba (Kab) | |
| 12. | skin | *ć°a | *ś°a | ć°a | *ć°a |
| 13. | back | *pxá | *pxa | pšá | *(p)x̌á |
| 14. | belly | *nək’°a//nəg°a | *nəba | nək’°ə | *mg°a |
| 15. | bone | *bəG°ə | *p̄q̄ə | pqə (Circ) | *ba/əɦ°ə |
| 16. | guts | *k’á-t’ə/ajə | La | *k’át’ə/ajə (Circ) | |
| 17. | liver | *ć’°a | *ś’°ə | ć’°a | *(g°-a-)ć’°a |
| 18. | heart | *g°ə | *g°ə | gə́ | *g°ə |
| 19. | shoulder | *t̄ama | txə (Circ) | *ź°-°ɦ°a | |
| 20. | know | *ć’a | *ś’-q’a | ć’a | *ć’a ‘to learn’; *dərə |
| 21. | think | *g°ə-ps/šə-sa | *q°əćə | ||
| 22. | be afraid | *čʰə́na | gə́-gá | *š°a | |
| 23. | blood | *λá | *λə | λa | *šá |
| 24. | head | *š-qa ? | *śħa | ša | *qa |
| 25. | neck | *pśa | t°əqə | *q°əda | |
| 26. | hair | *q(’)°ə | *cʰə | q̱’°ə | *q°ə |
| 27. | nose | *pa | *pʰa | fa | *pə |
| 28. | breathe | *bawa// *žə́ q̄a-čʰá | pśax̌°ə | a-psəp la-ga=j°a-ga-ra | |
| 29. | sniff, smell | *fə- | *pʰa-ma//*fa-ma | fə-mə | *fə-ɦ°ə |
| 30. | mouth | *č’a | *ža | č’á | *č’a |
| 31. | tooth | *ca | *c̄a | ca-k’ə́ | *cə |
| 32. | tongue | *bza | *bza | bźa | *bzə |
| 33. | laugh (v.) | *čá | *č´-xə | š°a-čá | *čə́-čá |
| 34. | cry (v.) | *ć’°a | *ɣə | ć’°a | *ć’°ə-wa |
| 35. | vomit (v.) | *ǯə | *q̄a-žə | ǯə | |
| 36. | spit | *ć°a | *wə-ź°ə-ntxa | ć°a-š´xə | *žə́-ć°a |
| 37. | defecate | *c’ə | *c’ə | ćə | *ccə |
| 38. | eat | *fa/ə | *ć´xə | fə | *fa |
| 39. | chew | *q’aq’a | *na/əšk’°ə | q̱’aq̱’ə | *q’aq’a |
| 40. | cook/boil | *ź°a | *ź°a | ź°a | *ź°ə |
| 41. | drink (v.) | *ʒ́°a/ə | *ś°a/ə | ʒ́°a | *ź°ə |
| 42. | bite | *(ca-)Ga | *c̄a-q̄a | q̱’ə | *c-ħa |
| 43. | suck | *ć°a; *ś°a/ə | *ć°ə-λə; *ś°ə | t°əλə | *ć°(ć°)a; *ś°a |
| 44. | ear | *Ła | *tħa-k’°əma | La-k’°əma | *lə-mħa |
| 45. | hear | *za-xa-xə | q’°ə | *aħa | |
| 46. | eye | *b-la | *na | (b)La | *(b)la |
| 47. | see | *pλə/a | *pλə/a | pλa | *pšə |
| 48. | yawn | *x°əśħa | c’á-ɣ̱a | *č’a-ħa-śə | |
| 49. | sleep (v.) | *ƛ°a | *c̄̌ə-ja | ć°a | *ć°a |
| 50. | lie down | *ɣ°a-λə | -sə | *š´-t’a-la | |
| 51. | sit | *t’°a-sə | *t’ə-sə | t’°a-sə | *t’°a |
| 52. | stand | *gə | *tʰa-gə́ | *gə-la | |
| 53. | human being | *c’əx°ə | tətə | *waɦ°ə | |
| 54. | male | *(a)t°a//*(a)ba | *x̌°ə | t°a | *aba |
| 55. | female | *pəzə | *bzə | abza | *psə |
| 56. | child | *č’á-La | məzə | *x̌°ə-č’ə́ | |
| 57. | man/husband | *λ’ə | k°abžá | *qać’a | |
| 58. | woman/wife | *pH°á/ə-s°ə | px̌á-š° | *pħ°ə-śə | |
| 58. | woman/wife | *ś°ə- | *ś°əzə | ś°əmc’a | |
| 59. | mother | *(a)na/ə | *nə//(j)ana | na | *anə |
| 60. | father | *(a)t°ə | *t̄ə/a | t°ə | *abə |
| 61. | son | *q°a | *q̄°a | q°a | *pa |
| 62. | daughter | *pH°á/ə | *px̌°ə | px̌á | *pħa |
| 63. | house | *ʕ°əna | *wəna | ć°əja | *ɦ°əna |
| 64. | name | *(p’)c’a | *c’a | p’c’a | *x̌ə́ʒə |
| 65. | say | *q’°a | q’a | *ħ°a | |
| 66. | rope | *ša | *k’á-psa | nd°a-ša | *ša |
| 67. | tie up/ fasten | *pxa | bźa | *č’a-ħ°a | |
| 68. | sew | *px̌a/ə | *px̌ə | px̌a | |
| 68. | sew | *(p)sa | *-sa | *psa | |
| 69. | needle | *mast̄a | d°a | *g°ərə | |
| 70. | hunt (v.) | *š°a | *ja-s̄̌a | š°a | *š°a |
| 71. | shoot (arrow) | *čʰá-bza ʒə | *x̌ə-śə | ||
| 72. | stab | *pʰə-gá/ə | -ś°ə | *r-śə | |
| 73. | hit, slap | *wa | ja | *śə | |
| 74. | steal | *t̄əɣ°ə | wəćə | *ɣ(´)əčə́ | |
| 75. | kill | *ƛ’ə́ | *λ’ə | k’°ə | *šə́ |
| 76. | die, be dead | *λ’ə | dəwa | *pśə | |
| 77. | live | *psa-wə | psa wa-λ | *bza | |
| 78. | scratch (an itch) | *bžə́-bžə́/a | *bəzə-bəzə | ||
| 79. | cut, hack | *q’ə | *wə-q’a | -q’ə | *-q’ə |
| 80. | stick (wood) | *bəća | *bačʰá | k’ārda | |
| 81. | sharp | *pʰa-p’c’a | (n)dan | *ć’arə | |
| 82. | dull, blunt | *c̄a-k̄°a | cag°a (Circ) | *cag°ə (Circ) | |
| 83. | work | *Lažá | psa-šə́ | *wə | |
| 84. | plant (v.) | *xa-sa | *la-c’a | ||
| 85. | choose | *xə | *-xə | *aj-lə-x̌ə | |
| 86. | grow | *H°á | *xa-x̌°a | ja-x̌á-x̌ə́ | *źə-ħa |
| 87. | swell (abscess) | *čə́ | *q̄a-cʰə́-nə | pśa | *čə́ |
| 88. | squeeze | *zə | *q̄°ə-za/ə | ɣa-zə | |
| 89. | hold (in fists) | *q’a-ɣə | *q’ə-ɣə | q’a-ɣə | *k’ə |
| 90. | dig | *t’°ə | *t’a/ə | t’°ə | *ža |
| 91. | buy | *x̌°a | *s̄̌á-x°a | x̌°a-da | *ɦa-x̌°a |
| 92. | give | *ta/ə | *tʰə/a | t(°)ə/a | *ta/ə |
| 93. | open, uncover | *t’°ə | *-xə | č’á-t’°ə | *t’ə |
| 94. | pound, beat | *śə | *śə-bə | śa-śə | *śə |
| 95. | throw | *ʒ́a/ə | *ʒə | ʒ́a-da | *-ž´ |
| 96. | fall | *Há | *-x°a/ə | -x̌á | *ħa |
| 97. | dog | *H°a (?) | *ħa | w̱a | *la |
| 98. | bird | *bzə-wə | ɣ°ənd°ə | *ć’ə-śə | |
| 99. | egg | *k’á(n)k’á | dəma-ć’a | *k’°ət’a-ɣə́ | |
| 100. | feather | *q̄a-bzəjə | *x̌ʒə | ||
| 101. | wing | *t̄ama | bzāpa | *mc’(°)ə-ź°-ɦ°a | |
| 102. | fly (v.) | *pərə | *pʰərə ‘sound of flying’; *bəbə | pərə | *pərə |
| 103. | rat, mouse | *q°ənə//*H°ənə | *ś°aja | q°ənə | *ħ°ən-apə |
| 104. | meat, flesh | *Lə | *Lə | ɣá | *žə́ |
| 105. | fat, grease | *ša | *s̄̌a | ś°əq’a | *šəša |
| 106. | tail | *k’á | k’°ačá | *c’ə-q°a | |
| 107. | snake | *bLa | ant’a | *matə | |
| 108. | worm | *x°a | *x°ə-psə ‘larva, grub’; *ħambəLəwə | xa | *x̌°a |
| 109. | louse | *ć’a | *c’a | ž°a-(n)k’ə́ | *ć’a |
| 110. | flea | *ʒ́ə | *bžə-ʒa | ba-(n)ʒ́ə ‘fly’ | *ʒ́ə |
| 111. | mosquito | *k’°əm/bərə | *arɣ°ajə | k’°əməj | *k’°əbərə |
| 112. | fish | *pśa | *p̄c̄a | psa | *pśə-ʒə |
| 113. | rotten | *ś°ə | *ś°ə | śa | *ś°ə |
| 114. | branch | *maq°ə//*q̄°ama | *q̄°ama | q̱ap’ə | *maq°ə(-ta ) |
| 115. | leaf | *tħapʰa | p’ć’a-pa | *baɣə́ | |
| 116. | root | *λa-psa | λa-msa (Circ ?) | *da-cə | |
| 117. | flower | *q̄a-ɣaɣa | *ś°tə | ||
| 118. | fruit | *px̌°a-śħa-mə-śħa | (n)ć’°až°a | *ś°ərə | |
| 119. | grass | *wəc̄ə | šx̌°a | *šá-ća | |
| 120. | earth, soil | *č’ə-g°ə | jəć°a | *nəš°ə | |
| 121. | stone | *məź°a | Laqá | *ħa-q°ə | |
| 122. | sand | *pč/šaH°a | *pčʰax̌°a | pšax̌°a | *pśaħ°a ‘shore’; *pśləmʒə |
| 123. | water | *psə | bzə | *ʒə | |
| 124. | flow | *c̄̌a | *ća | ||
| 125. | sea | *λ°ə | *xə | š°a | *mašəna |
| 126. | salt | *ǯə́ | *čʰə́-ɣ°ə | ǯə́ | *ǯə́-k’a |
| 127. | lake | *psə-x̌°ərajə | bzə ś°əja | *ʒə-ja | |
| 128. | woods, forest | *mazə | λaxa | *bana | |
| 129. | sky | *ź°a(-ʕ°a) | *ź°a-ɣ°a ‘star’; *wa-ś°a | ź°a | *ź°ə-ɦ°a-n(d)ə |
| 130. | sun | *dəɣa | *t̄əɣa | (n)dəɣa | *mara |
| 131. | moon | *məʒa | *maza | məʒa | *məʒə |
| 132. | star | *ć’°a | *ź°a-ɣ°a | ć’°a-(n)k’´ | *jać’°a |
| 133. | cloud | *pčʰá | šawəda | *psta | |
| 134. | fog | *pčʰá-ɣ°a | nāḇa | *naq’°ə | |
| 135. | rain | *k°a/ə | *wa-č´xə | k°ə | *k°a |
| 136. | snow | *s°ə | *wa-sə | ź°a-ʒə | *śə |
| 137. | thunder(n) | *č°ə (?) | *šʰə-bLa | *č°ə | |
| 137. | thunder (v.) | *d°əd°ə | *ɣ°aɣ°a | d°əd°ə | *dədə |
| 138. | lightning | *p̄c̄̌ə́-k’á | wašx̌°a (Circ) | *mać°ə-śə | |
| 139. | wind | *žə́ | t’apsa | *pša | |
| 140. | blow | *ja-ps̄̌á | pśax̌°ə | *t°ħ°a | |
| 141. | warm | *x°aba | pśə | *px̌a | |
| 142. | cold | *č’ə́ | *c’ə́-q’a | čə́ | *č’ə́-x̌ə́; *x̌ə́ |
| 143. | dry | *ʕ°ə́ | *ɣ°ə | ɣə | *ɦ°a |
| 144. | wet | *ć’ə | *c’ə-na | ć’ə-(n)ʒ́a | |
| 144. | wet | *ʒ́a | bə-ʒ́a-q’a | *aʒ́a | |
| 145. | heavy | *want̄aɣ°ə | gə́-(n)t’q’°a | *x̌ánta | |
| 146. | fire | *məć’°a | *maś’°a | məǯá | *mca |
| 147. | burn | *ca | *st̄ə | ca | *ca ‘hot’ |
| 147. | burn | *bla/ə | *bLa | *blə | |
| 148. | smoke | *ʕ°a | *q’°ə-ɣ°a | ɣ°a | *ləɦ°a |
| 149. | ash | *tq°a | *tx̌°a ‘grey’; *jažá | tx̌°a | *q°a ‘ash’, ‘grey’ |
| 150. | black | *ć’°a | *ś’°əc’a | ǯá | *ajk°a-ć’°a |
| 151. | white | *λ°ə́ | *x°ə-žə́ | ś°a | *šə |
| 152. | red | *pλə́ | *pλə-žə́ | pλə | *apšə́ |
| 153. | yellow | *ʕ°a | *ɣ°a-žə́ | ɣ°a | *ɦ°ažə́ (Circ) |
| 154. | green | *šx̌°ant’a | ɣ̱a-q’a | *ja-ć’°a | |
| 155. | small | *mač’ə́ | *mač’á | mač’´ | *mač’ə́ |
| 156. | big | *čx°a | gə́ʒa | *dəwə | |
| 157. | short | *k’áč’ə | *k’áč’ə́ | ak’°ə | *k’áč’ə |
| 158. | long | *wa/ə | *k’á-ħə | wa | *awə |
| 159. | thin | *č’°a | *p’q’°a-č’á | ač’á ‘wide, flat’; p’c’a | *č’°a |
| 160. | thick | *ɣ°əmə | ḇəq̱’°ə | *š°-p’a | |
| 161. | narrow | *za-ź°ə | məć’ə | *tś°a | |
| 162. | wide | *bʕ°á | *bɣ°a | bɣə́ | *tə-bɦa |
| 163. | ill, sick | *səma-gá | aḇa | *čə́-ma-za | |
| 164. | old | *ž°ə́ | *źə | ž°ə | *až°ə |
| 165. | new | *č’a | *č’á | ć’a | *č’a |
| 166. | good | *ś’°ə/a | č’a | *bzəja | |
| 167. | bad, evil | *q’aja | agá | *ć°əg’ə́ | |
| 168. | true | *śə-p̄q̄a | zak’°a (Circ ?) | *ć’a | |
| 169. | night | *cəƛə | *c̄̌ə́s̄̌ə́ | śəśə | *c(’)əx̌ə |
| 170. | day | *məλ°á | *max°a | məś°a | *məša |
| 171. | year | *s°a/ə | *jəλasə | š°a | *śə-k°ə-ša |
| 172. | when? | səd-jə-ɣ°a (Tem); sət śə-ɣ°a (Kab) | śa-ɣá | *an-ba | |
| 173. | hide | *ɣa-bə-λə | qarda | *ć’°ax̌ə | |
| 174. | climb | *da-k’°a-ja | -ɣ°a | *qa-la | |
| 175. | inside | *da-//*jə- | śa- | *ta- | |
| 176. | on (top of) | *tʰ-ja- | bɣá- | *k°ə- | |
| 177. | below | *la | *jə-č°a-ɣə | La-ɣ°a | *la-da; *-c’a-q’a |
| 178. | this | *mə | jə-na | *a-rə-jə | |
| 179. | that | *a | ajda | *a-nə-jə | |
| 180. | near | *bLa-ɣa-laq; -q’a-ʒ | *aj-g°a | ||
| 181. | far | *c̄̌ə́žá | λa-wa | *qara | |
| 182. | where? | tədă (Tem); dănă (Kab) | mā-k’á | *a-ba | |
| 183. | I | *sa | *sa | sə-ɣ°a | *sa(-ra) |
| 184. | you (sg.) | *wa | *wa | wə-ɣ°a | *wa(-ra) |
| 185. | (s)he | *a-rə | wa-na//jə-na | *ja(-ra) ‘he’; *la(-ra) ‘she’ | |
| 186. | we | *t̄a | šə́-ɣ°a | *ħa (-ra) | |
| 187. | you (pl.) | *ś°a | *ś°a | ś°ə-ɣ°a | *ś°a(-ra) |
| 188. | they | *a-xa-rə | wa-λa | *da(-ra) | |
| 189. | what? | *sə-tʰə; *śə-da | sa | *z-ak’°ə-ja | |
| 190. | who? | *xa/ə | *xa-tʰə | šə́(-j) | *d-z-ak’°ə-da |
| 191. | other | *a-də-ra | *a-d-ra | ajda//gáša | *(d-)ača//*adərə |
| 192. | all | *za-gə́ | *za-k’á | za-w-žə | *za-gə́ |
| 193. | and | *(-jə-)gə́ | *jə-k’ə́-jə | -gá | *-jə(-gə́) |
| 194. | how? | *śə- | *sə-tʰə; *śə-da | d(ɣ)an(ə) | *jə-ś-ba |
| 195. | not | *mə | *mə | -mā//mə- | *mə |
| 195. | no | *ħawa | *ma-wə = *ma-wə | ||
| 196. | count (v.) | *p̄c̄̌a/ə | pλaq’°a | *px̌á-ʒ́a | |
| 197. | one | *za | *zə | za | *za |
| 198. | two | *dG°ə | *t’q’°ə | t’q’°a | *ħ°ə |
| 199. | three | *ƛə | *s̄̌’ə | śə/a | *x̌ə |
| 200. | four | *p’ƛ’ə́ | *p’λ’ə | p’ƛ’ə | *pš’ə |
| English gloss | Common West Caucasian |
|---|---|
| ‘I’ | *sa |
| ‘thou’ | *wa |
| ‘(s)he/it, this’ | *ja- |
| ‘you’ | *śᵒa |
| ‘this’ | *a |
| ‘there’ | *na |
| ‘this’ | *wə/a |
| ‘that’ | *ra/ə |
| ‘(s)he/it, this’ | *ja- |
| ‘other’ | *də |
| ‘there’ | *da |
| ‘one’ | *za |
| ‘two’ | *dGᵒə |
| ‘three’ | *ƛə |
| ‘four’ | *p’ƛ’ə́ |
| ‘five’ | *txᵒə |
| ‘six’ | *ƛᵒə |
| ‘seven’ | *bLə́ |
| ‘eight’ | *jəʕᵒə |
| ‘nine’ | *bɣᵒə́ |
| ‘ten’ | *žᵒa |
| ‘mother’ | *(a)na/ə |
| ‘father’ | *(a)tᵒə |
| ‘mother/dad’ | *baba |
| ‘mummy’, ‘grandmother’ | *nana |
| ‘dad’, ‘grandfather’ | *dada |
| ‘son’ | *qᵒa |
| ‘daughter’ | *pHᵒá/ə |
| ‘brother’ | *-λá |
| ‘son-/brother-in-law’ | *maHᵒə |
| ‘relatives of wife’ | *tᵒə-ƛə |
| ‘orphan’ | *jə/aba |
| ‘head’ (?) | *š-qa |
| ‘neck’ | *tᵒəqə |
| ‘hair’ | *q(’)ᵒə |
| ‘hair, wool’ | *rasᵒa/ə |
| ‘nose’ | *pa |
| ‘mouth’ | *č’a |
| ‘mouth, orifice’ | *q’ᵒə/a |
| ‘tooth’ | *ca |
| ‘tongue’ | *bz/źa |
| ‘ear’ | *Ła |
| ‘eye’ | *b-la |
| ‘hand’ | *q’a |
| ‘foot’ | *λá |
| ‘bosom, upper part’ | *bɣá |
| ‘woman’s breast’ | *bəʒə, *ʒəʒa |
| ‘back (part)’ | *pxá |
| ‘waist, (small of the) back’ | *bĝa/ə |
| ‘belly’ | *nək’ᵒa//nəgᵒa |
| ‘hip, thigh, back’ | *kᵒa |
| ‘finger’ | *ćᵒa |
| ‘skin’ | *ćᵒa |
| ‘heart’ | *gᵒə́ |
| ‘bone’ | *bəGᵒə |
| ‘liver’ | *ć’ᵒa |
| ‘blood’ | *λá |
| ‘spleen’ or ‘stomach’ | *ká |
| ‘inside(s) | *c’a |
| ‘rib, side’ | *ǯᵒa |
| ‘bile’, ‘gall-bladder’ | *zazə |
| ‘kidney’ | *źaźa |
| ‘scrotum, testicle’ | *ĝá |
| ‘sinew’ | *xᵒa |
| ‘height’ | *q’ᵒa |
| ‘mountain’ | *bĝa/ə |
| ‘hill, mountain’ | *xᵒa |
| ‘ravine, river’ | *Hᵒə |
| ‘valley, ravine’ | *qᵒa |
| ‘field’, ‘open space’ | *dᵒə |
| ‘sea’ | *λᵒə |
| ‘sand, sandy beach’ | *pč/šaHᵒa |
| ‘floodlands, shore’ | *(nə-)ga |
| ‘summer’ | *ʕᵒá |
| ‘hail, cold’ | *śᵒə |
| ‘snow’ | *sᵒə |
| ‘snowstorm’, ‘hoarfrost’ | *sᵒə-tHᵒa/ə |
| ‘rain’ | *kᵒa/ə |
| ‘rain’, ‘hail’ | *č́xᵒə |
| ‘stream, torrent (after rain)’ | *ʕᵒarə |
| ‘water, river’ | *psə |
| ‘sky’ | *źᵒa |
| ‘sun’ | *dəɣa |
| ‘moon’ | *məʒa |
| ‘star’ | *ć’ᵒa |
| ‘thunder(-god)’ (?) | *čᵒə |
| ‘thunder’ | *dᵒədᵒə |
| ‘fire’ | *məć’ᵒa |
| ‘night’ | *cəƛə |
| ‘night’ | *aqa |
| ‘day’ | *məλᵒá |
| ‘kind of big tree (beech or linden)’ | *tᵒa |
| ‘beech/plane/oak’ | *bǯá/ə |
| ‘kind of tree (hornbeam/beech/maple)’ | *čá/ə |
| ‘plane/maple-tree’ | *məč’ə́ |
| ‘spruce/fir-/ pine-tree’ | *psa |
| ‘linden/willow’ | *bzə |
| ‘pine-wood’, ‘prickly tree’, ‘bush, shrub’ | *məʒ́ə |
| ‘bush shrub’ | *k’ᵒə |
| ‘prickle’ | *ma/ə(ɣə)ɣə |
| ‘prickled bush’ | *bana |
| ‘box-tree’ | *ša-sə |
| ‘kind of evergreen tree (like laurel, juniper, holly)’ | *dəɣa- |
| ‘tree, trunk’ | *ʕᵒa/ənə |
| ‘wood (as material)’ | *məHá |
| ‘wood (as material)’, ‘firewood’ | *məč’ə |
| ‘wood’ | *sə |
| ‘large tree (trunk)’, ‘grass (for making hay)’ | *ža |
| ‘grass (for making hay)’ | *tᵒa |
| ‘cornel fruit’ | *ʒ́a(-rə) |
| ‘chestnut’ | *šx̌ᵒá |
| ‘nut’ | *ra |
| ‘wild apple’ | *mə |
| ‘fig’ | *laHᵒə́ |
| ‘fruit/apple’ | *ć’ᵒa |
| ‘wild grapes, liana’ | *məšᵒə́ |
| ‘grape’, ‘corncob’ | *šx̌ᵒə |
| ‘(straw)berry’ | *mark’ᵒa |
| ‘plum’ | *pqᵒə//pHᵒə |
| ‘a cherry’ | *tᵒá |
| ‘pear’ | *qᵒá |
| ‘(juicy) ripe fruit’ | *t’a/əma/ə |
| ‘onion’ | *(b)ǯə́(-nə) |
| ‘reed’ | *p’q’a/ə- |
| ‘twigs (for wattle)’, ‘wattle’ | *baća |
| ‘root’ | *cə |
| ‘(to) hunt’ | *šᵒa |
| ‘fox’ | *baga |
| ‘marten’ | *cəʒa |
| ‘small animal like mouse or marten’ | *cəɣᵒa/ə |
| ‘goat, deer’ | *(a)ča |
| ‘deer, beast’ | *šᵒə́ |
| ‘deer’ | *λə́ |
| ‘bear’ | *məšᵒə́ |
| ‘hare’ | *(a)La |
| ‘reptile (like frog or snake)’ | *(H)ant’a |
| ‘lizard’ | *-cəšə |
| ‘mouse, rat’ | *qᵒənə//Hᵒənə |
| ‘worm’ | *xᵒa |
| ‘fly, locust’ | *mać’a |
| ‘small insect’ (beetle or flea) | *bžə |
| ‘mosquito’ | *k’ᵒəb/mə- |
| ‘flying insect (like gadfly or moth)’ | *ʕᵒə(-dᵒə) |
| ‘fly’, ‘flea’ | *ʒ́a/ə |
| ‘louse’ | *ć’a |
| ‘tick’ | *ba(mə)č’a |
| ‘middle-sized bird like raven, crow or woodpecker’ | *qᵒaLa |
| ‘rook, raven’, or ‘dove’ | *raHᵒa//raqᵒa |
| ‘rook, raven’ | *ćᵒəndə |
| ‘small bird’ | *(p’)ć’a |
| ‘owl’ | *t(’)ə |
| ‘eagle-owl’ | *t(')ə-ʕᵒərə-ʕərə |
| ‘quail’ | *nəbʕᵒá |
| ‘kind of cereal (millet)’ | *(a)ča |
| ‘millet’, ‘millet (in field)’ | *pšə |
| ‘millet’ | *ma/əƛə́ |
| ‘millet’ | *λᵒə́ |
| ‘to plough’ | *źᵒa, *ćᵒa |
| ‘quantity, measure (e.g. of land to be cultivated)’ | *mata |
| ‘to weed, mow’ | *(p’)č’á/ə |
| ‘to sow’ | *(p)sa |
| ‘to sow by strewing’ | *px̌a |
| ‘seed, stone of fruit’ | *ƛᵒəla |
| ‘to rip, mow, saw’ | *xə |
| ‘threshing floor’ | *Hamə |
| ‘to pound, grind’ | *bə/a |
| ‘to grind, pound’ | *dᵒədᵒə |
| ‘to pound, thresh (seeds), husk grains out of ears’ | *tᵒa |
| ‘to husk’ | *źɣə |
| ‘to pound, husk’ | *gᵒə |
| ‘mortar for threshing grains’ | *gᵒə́-Hᵒə |
| ‘mill’ | *wə |
| ‘to grind, thresh, mill’ | *laga |
| ‘to grind, mill, thresh’ | *čá/ə |
| ‘horse’ | *čə |
| ‘stallion’ | *λᵒa-k’ᵒá |
| ‘donkey’ | *č(́)ədə |
| ‘bull’ | *ćᵒə |
| ‘cow’ | *źᵒə |
| ‘cow (with small udder)’ | *gᵒəma |
| ‘camel’ | *max̌(ᵒ)ča |
| ‘ram’ | *t(’)ə |
| ‘sheep’, ‘price’ | *wasa |
| ‘goat’ | *st(’)a, *waGə(jə), *bǯánə |
| ‘kid, young goat’ | *kə/ac(’)ə |
| ‘kid, goatling’, ‘small of animals’ | *ʒ́ə |
| ‘swine/pig’ | *qᵒa//Hᵒa |
| ‘dog’ | *Hᵒa |
| ‘rooster’ | *ataqa |
| ‘hen’ | *k(’ᵒ)a/ət(’)ə |
| ‘herd, flock’ | *gᵒarta |
| ‘to butt (as cow)’ | *gə́/a |
| ‘trough for house animals’ | *jaGᵒa |
| ‘to milk’ | *xá |
| ‘dung, manure’ | *wacə/a |
| ‘to graze, pasture’ | *Hᵒə |
| ‘yoke’, ‘to tame, subdue’ | *bžə́ |
| ‘(fenced) enclosure’ | *gᵒa |
| ‘covered enclosure’, ‘wall’ | *ʒ́a |
| ‘hut’ | *kála/ə |
| ‘house’ | *ʕᵒəna |
| ‘fort’, ‘stone fence’ | *abʕa |
| ‘house’ | *ćᵒəja |
| ‘settlement with sheds for cattle’ | *kata |
| ‘wood for fire or as material’ | *məč’ə |
| ‘smoke’ | *ɣᵒa |
| ‘ashes’ | *tqᵒa |
| ‘device for producing light, candle’ | *məza |
| ‘vessel’ | *šəqᵒə |
| ‘basin, mug’ | *č(́)aq’ᵒə/a |
| ‘cord, rope’ | *ša |
| ‘awl’ (from the verb dᵒá ‘to sew’) | *dᵒá(-dᵒé) |
| ‘needle’ | *gᵒərə |
| ‘to wattle’, ‘to wind thread’ | *č’ə́č’ə́ |
| ‘to plait, wattle’ | *λᵒə |
| ‘wattle’ | *kᵒanə |
| ‘to weave’ | *śə/a |
| ‘bobbin or shuttle used while making thread’ | *kᵒa |
| ‘weaving loom’, ‘pivot of the shuttle’ | *x̌ᵒə/a |
| ‘to knit, weave, spin thread’ | *x̌a |
| ‘hair, wool’ | *rasᵒə/a |
| ‘to pinch’, ‘to card (wool)’ | *(s)k’ᵒa(-k’ᵒə) |
| ‘to card (wool)’ | *pxə |
| ‘felt’ | *wə/ap’a |
| ‘to plane, shave, sharpen’ | *psə |
| ‘to rough-hew, carpenter’ | *ʒ́a |
| ‘stake, pole, plank’ | *ɣᵒə |
| ‘beam’ | *bla |
| ‘to coat (the walls of the house)’ | *ja |
| ‘to scutch, swindle, comb (flax)’ | *zᵒə |
| ‘wax’ | *ƛᵒa |
| ‘honeycomb’ | *ƛᵒa-məɣᵒá//məɣᵒá-ƛᵒa |
| ‘axe’ | *gᵒášᵒə́ |
| ‘sabre, sword’ | *asᵒa |
| ‘arrow’ | *ƛá |
| ‘oar’, ‘rudder’ | *źᵒa |
| ‘metal’ | *ʕᵒə |
| ‘red copper’ (lit. ‘red metal’) | *ʕᵒə-pλa |
| ‘white copper’ (lit. ‘white metal’) | *ʕᵒə-λᵒa |
| ‘iron’ (lit. ‘black metal’) | *ʕᵒə-ć’ᵒa |
| ‘silver’ | *raǯᵒə́nə |
| ‘lead’ | *amp’a, *t’əsa |
| ‘to forge’ | *k’ə́ |
| ‘blacksmith’ | *ʕᵒə-k’ə́ |
| ‘smithy’ | *k’ə́-ƛə |
| ‘to melt, fuse’ | *bžə́ |
| ‘anvil’ | *(p)sə(n)gə́ |
| ‘the god of the smithy’ | *λáśᵒə |
| ‘to evaluate, pay’ | *śᵒa |
| ‘to sell’ | *ƛa |
| ‘to buy’ | *xᵒə |
| ‘to exchange, buy, take’ | *x̌ᵒa |
| ‘loan’, ‘to borrow’ | *ʕa |
| ‘sheep’, ‘price’ | *wasa |
| ‘dear, expensive’ | *λá-p’q’ᵒa |
| ‘army’ | *ra |
| ‘seed, stone of fruit’, ‘population of village’, ‘clan’ | *ƛᵒə́́la |
| ‘prince’ | *Há/ə |
| ‘captive, slave’ | *ɣarə |
| ‘soul’ | *psa |
| ‘grave’ | *qa |
| ‘sky, heaven’, ‘god’ | *wa |
| ‘dragon’ | *t’əGᵒa |
| ‘god of the smithy’ | *λáśᵒə |
| ‘lightning’, ‘god of lightning’ (?) | *čᵒə |
| ‘textile, linen’ | *ša/ə |
| ‘short jacket’ (< *k’áč’ə ‘short’) | *k’áč’ə |
| ‘fur-coat’ | *tqamə |
| ‘nail or metallic clasp’ | *q’ᵒəna |
| ‘buckle, clasp’ | *pəǯə́ |
| ‘food’ | *xá |
| ‘kind of food’ | *ɣá-čə́//čá-ɣá |
| ‘meat, flesh’ | *Lə |
| ‘(internal) fat’ | *ša |
| ‘salt’ | *ǯə́ |
| ‘milk’ | *čá |
| ‘cheese’ | *qᵒa- |
| ‘butter’ | *tx̌ᵒə |
| ‘honey’ | *śᵒa |
| ‘wine’ | *ʕᵒə |
| ‘to roast, bake’ | *ʒ́ə/a |
| ‘to fry’ | *(b)ǯá/ə |
| ‘to boil’ | *źᵒa |
| ‘to cut or pinch dough’; cf. also *fa/ə ‘to eat’ | *bək'ə |
| ‘sharp’ | *(p’)ć'a |
| ‘warm, hot’ | *λᵒa |
| ‘dry’ | *ʕᵒə́ |
| ‘cold’ | *č’ə́ |
| ‘wet’ | *t’ə/a |
| ‘wet’ | *ʒ́a |
| ‘wet, humid’ | *ć’ə |
| ‘white’ | *λᵒə́ |
| ‘red’ | *pλə́ |
| ‘yellow’ | *ʕᵒa |
| ‘black’ | *ć’ᵒa |
| ‘black’ | *ǯá |
| ‘small, little’ | *mač’ə́ |
| ‘small’ | *t’a |
| ‘short, small’ | *gᵒə |
| ‘short’ | *k’áč’ə |
| ‘long’ | *wa/ə |
| ‘thin’ | *č’ᵒa |
| ‘narrow’ | *məć’ə |
| ‘wide’ | *bʕᵒá |
| ‘old’ | *žᵒə́ |
| ‘new’ | *č’a |
| ‘young, new’ | *ć’a |
| ‘good’ | *č(’)a |
| ‘bad, lacking’ | *(a)g(́)a |
| ‘bad, evil’ | *(a)ćᵒa/ə |
| ‘fluffy, downy’ | *bəbə |
| ‘large, thick’ | *p’a |
| ‘mild, soft’ | *t’at’a |
| ‘naked, clean’ | *p’ć’a |
| ‘sour’ | *ć’ᵒa |
| ‘light, quick’ | *l/wasə |
| ‘slow’ | *źaźa |
| ‘strong’ | *šx̌ᵒa |
| ‘thin, weak’ | *abʕa |
| Vocabulary lists of North Eurasian languages |
|---|
|
European • Balkan • Hurro-Urartian • Hattic • Sumerian (Swadesh) • Elamite • Etruscan • Burushaski • Ural-Altaic • Paleosiberian • p-Japanese • p-Ainu • p-Nivkh • p-Chukotko-Kamchatkan • p-Yukaghir • p-Yeniseian |
| Caucasian |
|
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|
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| "Altaic" linguistic area |
|
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| Indo-European |
|
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