User:Kwékwlos/Sound changes from Indo-European to Nuristani

This stage covers the evolution of an eastern satem Proto-Indo-European dialect as it evolves into a separate Early Proto-Indo-Iranian language spoken by the Sintashta culture.

1. Fronting of palatovelar consonants into affricates (*ḱ > *ć, *ǵ > *ȷ́, *ǵʰ > *ȷ́ʰ).

   *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥néh₃ti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *j̈āna- (“to know”)

   *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ȷ́imás > *j̈ima (“snow”)

2. Labiovelar consonants become plain velar consonants (*kʷ > *k, *gʷ > *g, *gʷʰ > *gʰ).

   *gʷʰen- (“to kill”) > *gʰen- > *gʲʰan- > *ǰāna- (“to kill”) (irregular long vowel)

   *pénkʷe (“five”) > *pénke > *pánkʲa *panča (“five”)

3. Change of *l and *l̥ to *r and *r̥.

   *léwkos (“light”) > *réwkos > *ráwkʲas > *řoča (“dawn, light”)

   *ml̥d- (“earth”) > *mr̥d- > *mr̥d- > *mr̥d- (“clay”)

4. Palatalization of s before *r/r̥ (also includes those from *l/*l̥), *u/*w, *k, and *i/*y as *š.

   *h₂úsmn̥ (“ear”) > *h₂úšmn̥ > *Húšma > *ušma (“ear”)

   *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnós > *kr̥šnás > *kəršna (“black”)

   *néwistHos (“newest”) > *néwištHos > *náwištʰas > *nusta (“before, front”) (remodeling)

   *usmé (“you (plural)”) > *ušmé- > *ušmā́kam > *ušmā́kam, *ušwā́kam (irregular change, cf. English you, Kamkata-viri šo, Yoron うら (ura)) > *ušmāka, *ušwāka (“you (plural)”)

5. Bartholomae's law (voicing assimilation after aspirated consonants)

   *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *sanda- (“to be joined, united”)

6. Palatalization of velars before *e, *ē, or *i (*k > *kʲ, *g > *gʲ, *gʷʰ > *gʲʰ)

   *gʷʰen- (“to kill”) > *gʰen- > *gʲʰan- > *ǰāna- (“to kill”) (irregular long vowel)

   *gʷʰéntōr (“one which strikes”) > *gʲʰéntōr > *gʲʰántā > *janta (“leopard”)

   *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *sċinda- (“to cut”)

7. Brugmann's law (open-syllabic *o > *ō)

   *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *h₁nṓmn̥ > *Hnā́mn̥ > *nāma (“name”)

   *ǵónu (“knee”) > *ǵṓnu > *ȷ́ā́nu > *j̈ānu (“knee”)

8. *h₂ before a vowel and after a voiceless stop creates a voiceless aspirated consonant (*ph₂ > pʰ, *th₂ > *tʰ, *kh₂ > *kʰ)

   *néwistHos (“newest”) > *néwištHos > *náwištʰas > *nusta (“before, front”) (remodeling)

9. Merger of the three laryngeals *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ (after vowel coloring) as *H.

   *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥néh₃ti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *j̈āna- (“to know”)

   *h₁ésti (“to be”) > *Hésti > *Hásti > *asa- (“to be”)

   *h₂éḱru (“tear”) > *Háćru > *aċruka (“tear”)

10. A laryngeal between two consonants vocalizes as *i, or disappears.

    *dʰugh₂tḗr (“daughter”) > *dʰugʲitā́ > *dugʲitā́, *duyitā́ (irregular change, cf. Japanese いと (ito), Kamkata-viri jü, ji, juk) > *dujita, *juta (“daughter, girl”)

    *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *sanda- (“to be joined, united”)

11. Merger of *e, *o as *a, *ē and *ō as *ā.

    *h₁ésti (“to be”) > *Hésti > *Hásti > *asa- (“to be”)

    *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnós > *kr̥šnás > *kəršna (“black”)

    *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swasa (“sister”)

12. Word-final *m̥ becomes *am.

    *gʷíh₃wontm̥ (“living”) > *gʲíHwantm̥ > *gʲiHwántam > *ǰiwãta (“body”)

This stage covers the evolution of an eastern Proto-Indo-Iranian dialect as it evolves into an ancestor of Proto-Japonic and Proto-Nuristani somewhere in the vicinity of the Tian Shan and Altai mountains (unique changes defining both subgroups are included below except for loss of aspiration, plus morphological innovations like the change of the initial consonant (*m) of the 1sg.obl. stem to *w (eg. Okinawan わん (wan, “I”), Waigali ũ (“me”) < *wan- < *man-, which serves to exclude Dameli from the proposed group, having muu (“me”), mãã (“my”)).

1. Aspirated consonants lose their aspiration (*bʰ > *b, *dʰ > *d, *gʰ > *g, *gʲʰ > *gʲ, *ȷ́ʰ > *ȷ́, *pʰ > *p, *tʰ > *t, *kʰ > *k).

   *bʰéh₂os (“light”) > *bʰáHas > *báHas > *bā́s > *bāsa (“flame; steam”)

   *dʰoHnéh₂ (“grain”) > *dʰaHnáH > *daHnáH > *dāna (“grain”)

   *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ȷ́imás > *j̈ima (“snow”)

   *h₃móyǵʰos (“urine”) > *Hmáyȷ́ʰas > *Hmáyȷ́as > *mej̈a (“urine”)

   *néwistHos (“newest”) > *náwištʰas > *náwištas > *nusta (“before, front”) (remodeling)

2. Initial *r or *Hr becomes *ř, also before initial *a.

   *h₃eletnís (“elbow”) > *Haratníš > *ařatníš > *ařani (“elbow”)

   *léwkos (“light”) > *réwkos > *ráwkʲas > *řoča (“dawn, light”)

3. Loss of the laryngeal *H between two vowels, probably conditioned by accent in case of syllabic consonants. If a sequence of two distinct vowels results, a glide is inserted, otherwise they merge.

   *bʰéh₂os (“light”) > *bʰáHas > *báHas > *bā́s > *bāsa (“flame; steam”)

   *ḱr̥h₂wíh₂ (“head”) > *ćr̥HwíH > *ćruwíH > *ċruwi (“horn”)

   *n̥dʰí + *h₁éyti (“to go”) > *n̥dʰiHáyti > *n̥diyáyti > *diye- (“to go”)

4. Reduction of syllable-initial *an as *n̥ followed by shortening of syllable-initial *ān as *an.

   *h₁entér (“inside, within”) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári (remodeling) > *ãtari (“inside”)

   *h₂entikós (“near”) > *Hantikás > *Hn̥tikás > *ãtika (“near”)

   *h₃éngʷn̥ (“fat”) + *bʰr̥tós (“borne”) > *Hāngnabʰr̥tám (irregular long vowel) > *Hangnabr̥tám > *annabr̥ta (“ghee”)

This stage covers the developments after Pre-Proto-Japonic split off and moved eastward. The speakers of Pre-Proto-Nuristani moved southward towards Uzbekistan and later Afghanistan, leading to some areal innovations with Old Iranian dialects.

1. Depalatalization of *ć and *ȷ́ as *ċ (*ts) and *j̈ (*dz).

   *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ȷ́imás > *j̈imás > *j̈ima (“snow”)

   *h₂éḱru (“tear”) > *Háćru > *Háċru > *aċruka (“tear”)

2. Palatalization of *kʲ and *gʲ as *č and *ǰ.

   *gʷʰen- (“to kill”) > *gʲʰan- > *gʲan- > *gʲan- > *ǰāna- (“to kill”) (irregular long vowel)

   *léwkos (“light”) > *ráwkʲas > *řáwčas > *řoča (“dawn, light”)

3. Shift of *r̥H to *ar.

   *pr̥h₂wós (“first”) > *pr̥Hwás > *parwás > *pawwa (“last year”)

4. Loss of laryngeals as phonemes, lengthening the preceding vowel.

   *dʰoHnéh₂ (“grain”) > *dʰaHnáH > *dānā́ > *dāna (“grain”)

   *gʷíh₃wontm̥ (“living”) > *gʲíHwantm̥ > *ǰīwãtam > *ǰiwãta (“body”)

5. Vocalization of *m̥ and *n̥ as *a and *ã.

   *gʷm̥tós (“gone”) > *gm̥tás > *āgatás (addition of prefix) > *āgataka (“came”)

   *h₁entér (“inside, within”) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári (remodeling) > *ãtari (“inside”)

   *h₂entikós (“near”) > *Hantikás > *Hn̥tikás > *ãtika (“near”)

6. Monophthongization of the diphthongs *ā̆y and *ā̆w to *e and *o.

   *h₁óykos (“light”) > *Háykas > *Haykás (accent shift) > *ekás > *eka (“one”)

   *léwkos (“light”) > *ráwkʲas > *řáwčas > *řóčas > *řoča (“dawn, light”)

This stage covers the developments as Prasun began to develop differently from the rest of Nuristani, such as the retention of the old accent system instead of the core Nuristani penultimate stress. During the latter part of this period, Indo-Aryan and to a smaller extent Iranian loanwords begin to enter the language, a process that continues up to the present day.

1. Loss of final consonants.

   *h₁óykos (“light”) > *Háykas > *Haykás (accent shift) > *ekás > *eka (“one”)

   *h₂entikós (“near”) > *Hantikás > *Hn̥tikás > *ãtika (“near”)

   *h₃móyǵʰos (“urine”) > *Hmáyȷ́ʰas > *Hmáyȷ́as > *mej̈a (“urine”)

2. Merger of *st and *št as *st.

   *ǵʰes- (“hand”) > *ȷ́ʰástas > *dástas > *dasta (“hand”)

   *ken- (“to arise, begin”) > *káništʰas > *kanista (“youngest”)

3. Simplification of consonant clusters. Generally, the first consonant is deleted.
   1. *ćš > *ċċ > *sċ.

      *kuḱís (“belly”) > *kućšíš (irregular change) > *kuċċi > *kusċi (“belly”)

   2. *ćt > *ċt > *st.

      *h₁oḱtṓ (“eight”) > *Haćtā́ > *asta (“eight”)

   3. *kš > *čč > *č.

      *h₃ókʷs (“eye”) > *Hákši > *aččina > *ačina (“eye”) (remodeling)

   4. *kt > *tt.

      *yugtós (“joined”) > *yuktás > *yuttaka (“pair”)

   5. *pt > *tt.

      *septḿ̥ (“seven”) > *saptá > *satta (“seven”)

   6. *rd, *rn > *rr.

      *werdʰh₁om (“word”) > *wr̥Hdʰam > *wardiya (remodeling) > *warriya (“language, word”)

      *pornóm (“fern, leaf”) > *parnám > *parra > *pārra (“leaf”)

   7. *rw, *ry > *ww, *yy.

      *pr̥h₂wós (“first”) > *pr̥Hwás > *parwás > *parwa > *pawwa (“last year”)

   8. *tw > *tt, but *pp > p in Prasun.
   9. Lengthening of *a before *r.

      *pornóm (“fern, leaf”) > *parnám > *parra > *pārra (“leaf”)

4. *aya becomes *e.

   *tréyes (“three”) > *tráyas > *traya > *tre (“three”)

5. Loss of intervocalic single *r after a long vowel.
6. Shortening of long vowels other than *ā.
7. Loss of intervocalic *w.
8. Single intervocalic stops become fricatives (*p > *f, *t > *θ, *k > *x, *b > *β, *d > *ð, *g > *ɣ).
9. Weakening of fricatives (*f, *β > *w, *θ, *ð > *y, *x, *ɣ > *w or *y). In Prasun, however, *ð > l.
10. Denasalization of *ã.
11. All geminate consonants become single consonants.
12. Loss of intervocalic *y, with some exceptions.
13. Intervocalic *an becomes *ã before a consonant except *d.
14. Reduction of final vowels, followed by apocope.