| PIE | PIA | PSkr. | PDar. | Gand. | Examples | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PII | PIA | PSkr | OIA | MIA | NIA | ||||||||
| Vedic | Proto-Dardic | Pali | Gandhari | Central Dardic | Eastern Dardic | |||||||||
| *c̣ | ||||||||||||||
| *dʰ | *dʰuh₂mós (“smoke”) | *dʰuHmás | *dʰuHmás | dhūmás | *dʰūmás | dhūma | Kal. thum; Psh. dū́ᵘm[C 1] | Koh. dhùā̃; Kash. dh; Shi. duúm | ||||||
| *gʷFV | *gʷih₃wós (“alive”) | *ǰiHwáš | *ȷ́iHwáṣ | *ȷ́īwáṣ | jīvás | jiva | jiva | |||||||
| *j̣ | ||||||||||||||
| *ǵʰ *ǵH |
*ǵʰl̥h₃enyom (“gold”) | *ĵʰr̥Hanyam | *źʰíranyam | híraṇyam | hirañña | hiraña | ||||||||
| *ǵ | *ȷ́ /ʑ/ | *j /ɟ/ | *ǰ /dʑ/[C 2] | j /dʑ/ | *ǵénh₁os (“people”) | *ĵánHas | *ȷ́ánHas | *ȷ́ánas | jánas | jana | jaṇa | |||
| *ḱ | *ḱukrós (“bright”) | *ĉukrás | *śukrás | śukrás | *śukrás | sukka | śukra | Kal. šrúki | ||||||
| *h₃eḱteh₃ (“eight”) | *HaštáH | *HáṣṭáH | *aṣṭā́ | aṣṭā́ | *aṣṭā́ | aṭṭha | aṭha | Kal. aṣṭ | Koh. ā̀ṭʰ; Kash. aeth; Shi. ā̃ṣṭ | |||||
| *š | *ṣ? | ṣ /ʂ/ | *š[C 3] | |||||||||||
| *p[C 4] | *septḿ̥ (“seven”) | *saptá | *saptá | saptá | *sattá | satta | sata | Kal. sat | Kash. sat, sath; Koh. sā̀tʰ; Shi. sʌt | |||||
| *k⁽ʷ⁾ | *ć /c/ | *c /c/ | *č /tɕ/[C 2] | *c /tɕ/ | *kittós (“thought”) | *čittás | *ćittás | cittás | *čittás | citta | cita | Kal. čit | ||
| *p[C 5] | *p | *v /ʋ/ | abandhanas (“free”) | abandhana | avadhaṇo | |||||||||
| *p[C 5] | *p | *v /ʋ/ | lapanam (“speach”) | lapana | lavaṇa | |||||||||
| PIE | PIA | PDar | Examples | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PII | PIA | PSkr | OIA | MIA | NIA | ||||||
| Vedic | Proto-Dardic | Pali | Gandhari | Central Dardic | Eastern Dardic | |||||||
| *ŕ̥ | *ŕ̥ | *ī́ | *h₂ŕ̥tḱos (“bear”) | *Hŕ̥ĉšas | *Hŕ̥ṭṣas | *ŕ̥ṭṣas | ṛkṣas | *ī́ṭṣas | accha | Kal. its, ič̣ | Koh. ī̀c̣ʰ; Shi. iṣ | |
| *-rm- | *-rm- | *-mm- | *kérmn̥ (“skin”) | *čárma | *čárma | cárma | *ċámma | camma | *caṃma | Koh. ċā̀m; Shi. ċóm | ||
| *tr | *tr | *tr | *putrós (“boy”) | *putrás | *putrás | putrás | *putrás | putta | putra | Kal. putr | Koh. pū́c̣ʰ; Kash. pothur | |
| *k⁽ʷ⁾s | *kṣ /kʂ/ | *č̣ʰ /ʈʂʱ/ | *ksurós (“razor”) | *kšurnas | *kṣurás | kṣurás | *č̣ʰurás[1] | khura | kṣ̄ura | Kal. č̣ʰor | Koh. c̣hür, Shi. kʰurū́ | |
| *d(s)g⁽ʷ⁾ | *dg | *gg | (“risen”) | udgatás | *uggatás | uggata | ugada | |||||
| *d(s)g⁽ʷ⁾ʰ | *dgʰ | *ggʰ | *udgʰéwseti (“to cry out”) | *udgʰáwšati | *udgʰáwṣati | udghoṣati | *uggatás | ugghosati | *ughosati | |||
| *dʰg⁽ʷ⁾ʰ | *gẓʰ /gᶎʱ/ | *ȷ́ȷ́ /ʝː/ | *dʰgʷʰeh₁yeti (“to burn”) | *gžʰaHyati | *gẓʰaHyati | *gẓʰāyati | kṣāyati | jhāyati | j̄ayadi | |||
| *gʰs | *gégʰseti (“to laugh”) | *ǰágžʰati | *ȷ́ágẓʰati | jájjhatī– > jákṣatī- | jagghati | |||||||
| *dʰy | *dʰy | *dʰyéh₁yeti (“to imagine”) | *dʰyáHyati | *dʰyáHyati | *dʰyā́yati | dhyāyati | jhāyati | j̄ayadi | ||||
| *ḱs | *ṭṣ /ʈʂ/ | *č̣ʰ /ʈʂʱ/ | *déḱsinos (“right”) | *dáĉšinas | *dáṭṣinas | *dáṭṣinas | dákṣiṇas | *dáčʰinam | dakkhiṇa | dakṣina m, daśiṇo n | Koh. dac̣ʰṓ; Kash. dachhin; Shi. dashino | |
| *tḱ | *č̣ʰ /ʈʂʱ/ | *tḱéytrom (“field”) | *ĉšáytram | *ṭṣáytram | *ṭṣétram | kṣétram | *č̣ʰétram | khetta | kṣitra | Kal. č̣ʰetr | Shi. č̣ʰēṣ | |
| *ḱw | *św /ɕʋ/ | *šp /ɕp/ | *h₁éḱwos (“horse”) | *Háĉwas | *Háśwas | *áśwas | áśvas | *ášpas | assa | aśpa | Kal. hãš | Koh. ʌ̃špo; Shi. ä̃špo, ã́šup |
| *sw | *swéḱuros (“father-in-law”) | *swáĉuras | *śwáśuras | śváśuras | *špáśuras | sasura | śpaśuro | Kal. išpášur | Kash. shvasur, sasur; Shi. shéər | |||
| *sḱ | *ćś /tɕ.ɕ/ | *čʰ /tɕʰ/ | *sḱidróm (“hole”) | *sĉidrám | *ćśidrám | *ćśidrám | chidrám | *čʰidrám | chidda | chidva | Kho. čirdu, čʰirdu | |
| *-sn- | *-ṣn- /ʂn/ | *-ṣn- /ʂn/ | *kr̥snós (“black”) | *kr̥šnás | *kr̥ṣnás | *kr̥ṣṇás | kṛṣṇás | *kr̥ṣnás | kaṇha | kriṣo, krirṇa m, kiṣ̄a n | Kal. kríṣna | Koh. kiṣʌ̀ṽ; Kash. kruhun; Shi. kíṇo |
| *-dy- | *-dy- | *-ǰǰ- /dʑː/ | *h₁edyés (“today”) | *Hadyás | *Hadyás | *adyás | adyás | *aǰás | ajja | aca, aco, aja, ajo | Kal. aǰ | Koh. ā́z; Kash. az; Shi. acho |
| *r̥n- | *r̥n- | *r̥n- | (“debt”) | *Hr̥nás | *Hr̥nás | *r̥nás | ṛṇás | *r̥nás | iṇa | *r̥na, r̥nena (intr.) | ||
| *r̥s- | *r̥ṣ- | *h₂r̥sn̥bʰós (“bull”) | *Hr̥šabʰás | *Hr̥ṣabʰás | *r̥ṣabʰás | ṛṣabhás | usabha | uṣavha | ||||
| *g⁽ʷ⁾n | *gn | *gn | *h₁n̥gʷnis (“fire”) | *Hagníš | *Hagníṣ | *agníṣ | agníṣ | *agníṣ, *agnāras | aggi | agi, agiṇa (intr.) | Kal. aŋgár | Koh. ʌṅgàr |
| *stH | *ṣtʰ | *ṣtʰ | *h₃ósth₁i (“bone”) | *Hástʰi | *Hástʰi | *ástʰi | ásthi | *áṣtʰi | aṭṭhi | aṭ́hi | Kal. aṣ | Kash. aedij; Shi. áṭṭi |
| *bʰr | *bʰr | *bʰr | *bʰréh₂tēr (“brother”) | *bʰráHtā | *bʰráHtā | *bʰrā́tā | bhrā́tā | *bʰrā́dā | bhrātar | bhrada, bhado, bhradu | Kal. báya | Kash. boya; Koh. ẓhā̀ |
Kal. = Kalasha; Kho. = Khowar; Koh. = Kohistani; Psh. = Pashayi;Shi.= Shina; Tor. = Torwali