User:Kwékwlos/Sound changes from Indo-European to Japonic

This page will show many intricate details on how Proto-Indo-European evolved into Proto-Japonic. Please note that all of this is very speculative, so be warned.

1. Fronting of palatovelar consonants into affricates (*ḱ > *ć, *ǵ > *ȷ́, *ǵʰ > *ȷ́ʰ).

   *ḱwitrós (“white”) > *ćwitrós > *ćwitrás > *swirá > *sira (“white”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥néh₃ti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *sinúri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H- (irregular accent)

   *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimós > *ȷ́ʰimás > *simú > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

2. Labiovelar consonants become plain velar consonants (*kʷ > *k, *gʷ > *g, *gʷʰ > *gʰ).

   *gʷem- (“to come, step”) > *gém- > *gʲam- > *gḿ̥- > *kún- > *kuru (“to come”) 2.I H-

   *gʷʰénti (“to kill”) > *gʰénti > *gʲʰánti > *kə́nt-as- > *kərə-su (“to kill”) 3.I H-

   *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) > *keklóm > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kuru-ma (“car, wheel”) 2.1=1.1 HH=H

3. Change of *l and *l̥ to *r and *r̥.

   *léwkos (“light”) > *réwkos > *ráwkʲas > *řáwkʲas > *ákar-í > *akari (“light”) 3.1 HHH

   *pl̥th₂ús (“broad, wide”) > *pr̥th₂ús > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rú > *pirə (“broad, wide”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

4. Palatalization of s before *r/r̥ (also includes those from *l/*l̥), *u/*w, *k, and *i/*y as *š.

   *usmé- (“you”) > *ušmé- > *ušmá- > *uššá- (irregular change) > *ura 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH

   *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnós > *kr̥šnás > *kr̥nú > *kuro (“black”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *h₂úsmn̥ (“ear”) > *h₂úšmn̥ > *Húšma > *HušmnìH (dual form) > *(u)mini > *memi (“ear”) 2.3 LL (irregular assimilation)

   *néwistHos (“newest”) > *néwištHos > *náwištʰas > *nawíštas > *napíra > *mapya (“before, front”) 2.5 LF (irregular labial assimilation)

5. Bartholomae's law (voicing assimilation after aspirated consonants)

   *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *santá-m- > *santamu (“to decide, establish, fix”) 3.II L-

6. Palatalization of velars before *e, *ē, or *i (*k > *kʲ, *g > *gʲ, *gʷʰ > *gʲʰ)

   *gʷem- (“to come, step”) > *gém- > *gʲam- > *gḿ̥- > *kún- > *kuru (“to come”) 2.I H-

   *gʷʰénti (“to kill”) > *gʰénti > *gʲʰánti > *kə́nt-as- > *kərə-su (“to kill”) 3.I H-

   *gʷʰéntōr (“one which strikes”) > *gʲʰéntōr > *gʲʰántā > *gń̥tras (remodeling) > *kń̥su > *kensu (“wound”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

   *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-

7. Brugmann's law (open-syllabic *o > *ō)

   *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *h₁nṓmn̥ > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námu > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)

   *ǵónu (“knee”) > *ǵṓnu > *ȷ́ā́nu > *upa-ȷ́ā́nu (addition of prefix) > *upasánu > *pisa, *pinsa (“knee”) 4.11 LLHL > 2.1 HH

8. *h₂ before a vowel and after a voiceless stop creates a voiceless aspirated consonant (*ph₂ > pʰ, *th₂ > *tʰ, *kh₂ > *kʰ)

   *pl̥th₂ús (“broad, wide”) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rú > *pirə (“broad, wide”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

9. Merger of the three laryngeals *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ (after vowel coloring) as *H.

   *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥néHti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *sinúri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H- (irregular accent)

   *h₁ésti (“to be”) > *Hésti > *Hásti > *ari (“to be”) 2.II L- (accent neutralization due to clause position)

   *h₂énh₂ts (“duck”) > *HānHtíš > *Hāntíš > *anti (“duck”) 2.x

10. A laryngeal between two consonants vocalizes as *i, or disappears.

    *dʰugh₂tḗr (“daughter”) > *dʰugʲitā́ > *duyitā́ (irregular change) > *titə́ > *itə (“daughter, girl”) 2.x

    *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *santá-m- > *santamu (“to decide, establish, fix”) 3.II L-

11. Merger of *e, *o as *a, *ē and *ō as *ā.

    *h₁ésti (“to be”) > *Hásti > *ari (“to be”) 2.II L- (accent neutralization due to clause position)

    *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kuru-ma (“car, wheel”) 2.1=1.1 HH=H

    *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swusá > *sosa (“younger brother, younger sister”) 2.4a/2.5a LH/LF

    *wŕ̥sēn (“male, man”) > *wŕ̥šā > *ŕ̥šā (irregular change) > *ŕ̥ra > *úra > *wo (“male, man”) 1.3 L

1. Aspirated consonants lose their aspiration (*bʰ > *b, *dʰ > *d, *gʰ > *g, *gʲʰ > *gʲ, *ȷ́ʰ > *ȷ́, *pʰ > *p, *tʰ > *t, *kʰ > *k).

   *bʰéh₂os (“light”) > *bʰáHas > *báHas > *bā́s > *por-ì > *poi (“fire”) 1.3 L

   *dʰéreti (“to hold”) > *dʰárati > *dárati > *túrari > *tuàr- > *toru (“to hold”) 2.II L-

   *gʰo (“emphatic particle”) > *gʰa > *ga > *-nV-ka (with preposed genitive) > *-nka (“genitive particle”)

   *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ȷ́imás > *simú > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *pl̥th₂ús (“broad, wide”) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥túš > *pr̥rú > *pirə (“broad, wide”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

2. Initial *r or *Hr becomes *ř.

   *h₃eletnís (“elbow”) > *Haratníš > *upa-Hratníš (addition of prefix) > *upařatníš > *upantì (metathesis) > *penti (“elbow”) 3.4 LLL > 2.2 HL

   *léwkos (“light”) > *ráwkʲas > *řáwkʲas > *ákar-í > *akari (“light”) 3.1 HHH

3. Loss of the laryngeal *H between two vowels, probably conditioned by accent. If a sequence of two distinct vowels results, a glide is inserted, otherwise they merge.

   *bʰéh₂os (“light”) > *bʰáHas > *báHas > *bā́s > *por-ì > *poi (“fire”) 1.3 L

   *ḱr̥h₂wíh₂ (“head”) > *ćr̥HwíH > *ćruwíH > *suwí > *suwe (“top”) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH

   *n̥dʰí + *h₁éyti (“to go”) > *n̥dʰiHáyti > *n̥dáyti (glide dissimilation) > *n̥tári > *intai (“to go out”) 2.II L-

   *pr̥h₂wíyos (“first”) > *pr̥Hwíyas > *pruwíyas > *puwì > *upi (“first”) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH

4. Reduction of syllable-initial *an as *n̥ followed by shortening of syllable-initial *ān as *an.

   *h₁entér (“inside, within”) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári (remodeling) > *n̥túri > *utui (“inside, within”) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH

   *h₂entikós (“near”) > *Hantikás > *Hn̥tikás > *n̥tiká > *tika (“near”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *h₃éngʷn̥ (“fat”) + *bʰr̥tós (“borne”) > *Hāngnabʰr̥tám (irregular long vowel) > *Hangnabr̥tám > *annapr̥rá > *anpura (“fat”) 3.5b LLH

1. The syllabic consonants *m̥, *n̥, *r̥ become *am, *un, *ur syllable-finally; else they are retained.

   *gʷíh₃wontm̥ (“living”) > *gʲíHwantm̥ > *gʲiHwántam > *kiwúnta > *kiyora (“beautiful, clear”) 3.5b/3.6b LLH/LHH

   *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *Hnā́mun > *námu > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)

   *sm̥kŕ̥t (“at once”) > *sm̥kŕ̥t > *sm̥kúrt > *sunku (“at once”) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF

2. Single *ā becomes *o, except when unaccented, is followed by *u, or in word-final position, where it becomes *a instead.

   *dʰwórom (“door”) > *dʰwā́ram > *dwóram > *twóra > *to (“door”) 1.1 H(H)

   *ǵónu (“knee”) > *ȷ́ā́nu > *upa-ȷ́ā́nu (addition of prefix) > *upaȷ́ánu > *upasánu > *pisa, *pinsa (“knee”) 4.11 LLHL > 2.1 HH

   *h₁éh₁tmō (“soul, spirit”) > *HáHtmā > *tmā́ > *tmá > *tama (“soul, spirit”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *Hnámun > *námu > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)

   *mḗms (“flesh, meat”) > *mā́ms > *móms-i > *múri > *mui (“flesh, meat”) 1.1 H(H)

   *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swasá > *sosa (“younger brother, younger sister”) 2.4a/2.5a LH/LF

3. *wa becomes *wu when not word-initial or word-final (although it may be a later development).

   *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s (“tongue”) > *diȷ́ʰwáH > *diȷ́wáH > *tićwáH > *ćitwáH > *sitwá > *sita (“tongue”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swusá > *sosa (“younger brother, younger sister”) 2.4a/2.5a LH/LF

4. Secondary palatovelars lose their palatalization (*kʲ > *k, *gʲ > *g).

   *gʷʰénti (“to kill”) > *gʲʰánti > *kánti > *kə́nt-as- > *kərə-su (“to kill”) 3.I H-

   *léwkos (“light”) > *ráwkʲas > *řáwkas > *ákar-í > *akari (“light”) 3.1 HHH

   *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) > *keklóm > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kuru-ma (“car, wheel”) 2.1=1.1 HH=H

5. Simplification of *tˢt and *dᶻd as *tt, *dd

   *bʰidtós (“split”) > *bʰitˢtás > *bittás > *pittá > *ita (“board, plank”) 2.4b LH

   *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *samddás > *santá-m- > *santamu (“to decide, establish, fix”) 3.II L-

   *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *skinátti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-

6. Loss of *s before a voiceless stop (*sp > *p, *st > *t, *sk > *k)

   *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *kinátti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-

   *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (“shade, shadow”) > *skʲaHyáH > *kaHikáH > *kayiká > *kankai (“shade, shadow”) 2.5a LF

   *sph₁eh₁yós (“prosperous”) > *spʰaHyás > *paHyás > *payyá > *paya (“early, quick”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *stísteh₂ti (“to stand”) > *stíštaHti > *státaHti (remodeling) > *tátaHti > *tat- > *tatu (“to stand”) 2.II L- (irregular accent)

7. Voiced consonants are devoiced (*b > *p, *d > *t, *g > *k, *ȷ́ > *ć).

   *bʰidtós (“split”) > *bʰitˢtás > *pittás > *ita (“board, plank”) 2.4b LH

   *dʰuh₂mós (“smoke”) > *dʰuHmás > *dúHmriH (remodeling) > *túHmriH > *tū́mri > *tiri (“dust”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

   *gʰo (“emphatic particle”) > *gʰa > *ga > *ka > *-nV-ka (with preposed genitive) > *-nka (“genitive particle”)

   *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ȷ́imás > *ćimás > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

8. Loss of *ř (could be a later development).

   *h₃eletnís (“elbow”) > *Haratníš > *upa-Hratníš (addition of prefix) > *upantíš (metathesis) > *upantì > *penti (“elbow”) 3.4 LLL > 2.2 HL

   *léwkos (“light”) > *ráwkʲas > *řáwkas > *ákar-í > *akari (“light”) 3.1 HHH

9. *kš becomes *ć word-initially or *ćć word-medially before high vowels.

   *uksḗn (“bull, ox”) > *ukšā́ > *ukšínas (remodeling) > *uććínas > *usi (“bull, cow, ox”) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH

10. Phonemic split of *a into *a and *ë under complex, unclear conditions.

    *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ćimë́s > *simú > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

    *h₁entér (“inside, within”) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári (remodeling) > *Hn̥të́ri > *n̥túri > *utui (“inside, within”) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH

    *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnás > *kr̥šnë́s > *kr̥nú > *kuro (“black”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

    *kʷr̥tóm (“action, deed, work”) > *kr̥tám > *kr̥të́m > *kr̥tə́ > *kətə (“action, deed, work”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

1. Loss of final consonants.

   *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ćimë́ > *simu > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námun > *námu > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)

   *sm̥kŕ̥t (“at once”) > *sm̥kŕ̥t > *sm̥kúrt > *sm̥kú > *sunku (“at once”) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF

2. Loss of laryngeals, lengthening the preceding vowel and causing glottalization of following *w as *wH from metathesis.

   *gʷriHwéh₂ (“neck”) > *griHwáH > *gŕ̥HwiyaH (remodeling) > *kŕ̥HwiyaH > *kŕ̥wHi > *kumpi (“neck”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

   *ḱr̥h₂nóm (“horn”) > *ćr̥Hnám > *ćr̥ná > *sorná > *sora (“sky; top”) 2.4a LH

   *néh₂s (“nose”) > *náHsaH > *upa-náHsaH (addition of prefix) > *upanā́sā > *pana (“nose”) 4.11 LLHL > 2.1 HH

3. Simplification of consonant clusters and gemination of intervocalic *-y-. Generally, the first consonant is deleted, except for the ones listed below. This is believed to have led to the split correspondence in Ryukyuan between B and C of tone class 2.4/2.5 words, as words containing geminates or consonant clusters belong to class B (2.4b/2.5b).
   1. *ćr > *ć, but it rhotacized a following nasal.

      *ḱlinós (“bent, inclined”) > *ćrinás > *utćrínas > *ućírë > *usiro (“back”) 3.7 LHL

      *miḱrós (“mixed”) > *mićrás > *mićë́ > *misə (“miso”) 2.4b LH

   2. *ćš > *ćć > *ć (also *ćš > *ć word-initially).

      *dʰǵʰḿ̥h₂s (“earth”) > *ȷ́ʰžʰḿ̥Hs > *ȷ́žm̥HáH (remodeling) > *ćšm̥HáH > *ćm̥HáH > *sima (“island, territory”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

      *kóḱsih₂ (“joint”) > *káćšiH > *kë́ćći > *kë́ći > *kəsi (“back, hip”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

   3. *ćt > *ćć > *ć.

      *h₂mērǵtóy (“in purity”) > *Hmārćtáy > *maććá > *maćá > *masa (“in truth”) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF (fossilized locative)

   4. *kr > *k, but *k...kr > *k...r.

      *gʰrebʰ- (“to take, seize”) > *gʰrabʰ- > *káp- > *kapu (“to buy”) 2.I H-

      *kánkris (“crab”) > *kánkriš > *kánri > *kani (“crab”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

      *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kúrë > *kuru-ma (“car, wheel”) 2.1=1.1 HH=H

   5. *kš > *kk > *k, except word-initially.

      *dyutkós (“celestial, heavenly”) > *dyukšás > *dyukšyás (remodeling) > *tyukkyë́ > *tukyú > *tukuy (“moon”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   6. *mr > *m or *nr > *r, probably a dialectal feature, but the regular reflex seems to be *nr > *r causing a pitch rise on the following vowel and creating various accent classes.

      *dʰuh₂mós (“smoke”) > *dʰuHmás > *dúHmriH > *tū́mri > *tiri (“dust”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

      *morwís (“ant”) > *marwíš > *wřámriH (remodeling) > *řámriH (irregular change) > *ámrī > *ami, *ari (“ant”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

   7. *ntr > *nr > *n or *r.

      *h₁yenh₂tēr (“husband's brother's wife”) > *HyáHtā > *HyāntríH > *yanrī́ > *yari (“husband's brother's wife”) 2.x

      *kánkris (“crab”) > *kánkriš > *kánri > *kani (“crab”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

      *méntrom (“incantation”) > *mántram > *mántriH (remodeling) > *mánri > *mani (“incantation”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

   8. *pr > *p.

      *pro- (“forward, toward”) > *pra- > *pra > *pa (“topic marker”) 1.3 L

   9. *sk, *šk > *ss, *šš > *s, *š.

      *Hwr̥ksḱéti (“to tear”) > *Hwr̥škʲáti > *Hwr̥ššáti > *worai (“to break”) 2.II L-

   10. *tr > *r in all positions except word-initially, where it becomes *t. Note that dialectal reflexes also give *ć > *s or in one known case, *y.

       *drewníh₂ (“trough”) > *drawníH > *trawní > *tani (“valley”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

       *ḱwitrós (“white”) > *ćwitrás > *swirá > *sira (“white”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

       *temHésrih₂ (“darkness”) > *tamHásriH > *tramásiH > *yamë́sī > *yamúri > *yamui (“darkness”) 3.7 LHL > 2.3 LL

       *úd + *tréseti (“to fear”) > *utˢtrásati > *ućë́sati > *əsərai (“to fear”) 3.II L-

   11. *ts > *t. This occurred before *ć > *c (pronounced *ts).

       *wetsós (“yearling”) > *watsás > *watë́ > *wətə (“young (of an animal)”) 2.4 LH

       *údsos (“spring”) > *útsas > *útsiyas (remodeling) > *utìya > *urì > *wi (“well”) 1.3 L

4. *ć becomes *c.

   *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *cimë́ > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

5. Rhotacization of *s and *š as *r, except if there is a sequence of two such consonants.

   *dʰréh₂ǵseh₂ (“grape, vine”) > *dʰráHȷ́žʰaH > *dráHsaH (irregular change) > *të́sa > *të́ra > *tura (“vine”) 2.2 HL

   *pl̥sós (“rock, mountainslope”) > *pr̥šás > *pr̥rá > *pira (“slope”) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH (irregular accent?)

   *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swusá > *sosa (“younger brother, younger sister”) 2.4a LH

6. Rhotacization of unaccented *t as *r, except word-initially or after *k, *t, or *n̥.

   *teptós (“warm”) > *taptás > *ātaptás (addition of prefix) > *atata (“warm”) 3.5 LLH > 3.4 LLL

   *h₂entikós (“near”) > *Hantikás > *Hn̥tikás > *n̥tiká > *tika (“near”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *nédih₂ (“roar”) > *nádiH > *nári > *nai (“sound”) 1.1 H(H)

7. *kš > *kus word-initially.

   *dʰgʷʰiyéti (“to decline, perish”) > *gžʰiyátay > *gžayátay (remodeling) > *kusayári > *kusari (“to rot”) 3.II L-

1. *ay > *i when word-initial or following *sw (also when following *t if unaccented), otherwise *a. *aw > *a, which causes class 2.4 and 2.5 nouns to have class B.

   *deywós (“god”) > *daywás > *taywá > *tiyá > *ti (“spirit”) 1.3 L

   *drewníh₂ (“trough”) > *drawníH > *tani (“valley”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *kowḱós (“cover”) > *kawćás > *kasa 2.4b LH

   *swóydos (“sweat”) > *swáydas > *āswáydas (addition of prefix) > *aswíra > *asya (“sweat”) 2.5b LF

2. Arisaka's law (spreading of remaining *ë to adjacent vowels except *i). *n̥ and *r̥ = *ën and *ër spread *ë to *u only.

   *bʰréh₂tēr (“brother”) > *bʰráHtā > *braHtā́ > *patë́ > *pëtë́ > *ətə (“younger brother”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL (irregular accent?)

   *pl̥th₂ús (“broad, wide”) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rë́ > *pirə (“broad, wide”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *téntus (“thread”) > *tántuš > *tn̥túš (remodeling) > *itə (“thread”) 2.4a LH

3. Syllabic consonants vocalize or receive an epenthetic high vowel (which feeds into Arisaka's law if *u) except for *n̥ word-initially. *r̥t > *r only after *p. The sequence *rn (likely a retroflex nasal) that results from it is secondary; old *rn having become *n during the simplification.

   *kʷr̥tóm (“action, deed, work”) > *kr̥tám > *kətə (“action, deed, work”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *ḱr̥h₂nóm (“horn”) > *ćr̥Hnám > *curná > *sora (“sky; top”) 2.4a LH

   *pl̥th₂ús (“broad, wide”) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rë́ > *pirə (“broad, wide”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

4. *wH (from *Hw and *wH) > *mp.

   *gʷriHwéh₂ (“neck”) > *griHwáH > *gŕ̥HwiyaH (remodeling) > *kúwHiyā > *kúmpiya > *kumpi (“neck”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH

5. Long vowels shorten, except for *ū, which becomes a short close central vowel (written as *ū) that becomes *i or *u, probably the earliest difference between Japanese and Ryukyuan.

   *tuh₂yós (“strong”) > *tuHyás > *tūyë́ > *tiyo, *tuyo (“strong”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

6. *ë is raised to u, near *m, *n, and sometimes *r.

   *dʰéreti (“to hold”) > *dʰárati > *túrari > *tuàri > *toru (“to hold”) 2.II L-

   *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *cinúri > *sinúri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H- (irregular accent)

   *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) > *kʲakrám > *kúru > *kuru-ma (“car, wheel”) 2.1=1.1 HH=H

   *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinátˢti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-

7. Remaining *ë becomes *ə.
8. *c becomes *s.

   *ḱwitrós (“white”) > *ćwitrás > *swirá > *sira (“white”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

9. *o is raised to *u.

   *dʰwórom (“door”) > *dʰwā́ram > *tóra > *túra > *to (“door”) 1.1 H(H)

   *mḗms (“flesh, meat”) > *mā́ms > *móri > *múri > *mui (“flesh, meat”) 1.1 H(H)

10. *u lowers to *o (different from the old *o) near *m and *n, except when *y precedes it.

    *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnás > *kurnó > *kuro (“black”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

    *kʷíh₂ontm̥ (“how much”) > *kʲíHantam > *kʲyántam > *í-kyunta (remodeling) > *ikura (“how much”) 3.3 HLL

    *ḱr̥h₂nóm (“horn”) > *ćr̥Hnám > *corná > *sora (“sky; top”) 2.4a LH

    *péyh₂wō (“fat (noun)”) > *píHwā > *pyuntás (remodeling) > *puntó > *puto (“fat (adjective)”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

11. *w is lost after consonants. *iwa > *iya and following that, word-final *iya > *i.

    *deywós (“god”) > *daywás > *tiwá > *tiyá > *ti (“spirit”) 1.3 L

    *ḱwitrós (“white”) > *ćwitrás > *cwirá > *sira (“white”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

    *néwyos (“new”) > *náwyas > *nawíyas > *nawíya > *nawí > *nipi (“new”) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH

    *tewh₂yós (“strong”) > *tawHyás > *tawyás > *tayá > *taya (“strength”) 2.3/2.4a LL/LH

12. *i preceding *n dialectally lowers into *e, in part due to the Japanese reflex retaining the vowel.

    *h₂úsmn̥ (“ear”) > *Húšma > *HušmnìH (dual form) > *(u)mini > *memi (“ear”) 2.3 LL (irregular assimilation)

    *h₃eletnís (“elbow”) > *Haratníš > *upa-řatníš (addition of prefix) > *upantì > *penti (“elbow”) 3.4 LLL > 2.2 HL

    *tr̥nóm (“thorn”) > *tr̥nám > *tirná > *era (“thorn”) 2.5 LF (irregular accent)

13. *rn becomes *r

    *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnás > *kurnó > *kuro (“black”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

    *ḱr̥h₂nóm (“horn”) > *ćr̥Hnám > *corná > *sora (“sky; top”) 2.4a LH

14. *aya contracts to *a and shifts the accent to the right, unless it is syllable-final and is accented on the suffix, where it is retained.

    *dʰgʷʰiyéti (“to decline, perish”) > *gžʰiyátay > *gžayátay > *kusayári > *kusari (“to rot”) 3.II L-

    *sph₁eh₁yós (“prosperous”) > *spʰaHyás > *paya (“early, quick”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

    *tewh₂yós (“strong”) > *tawHyás > *tawyás > *taya (“strength”) 2.3/2.4a LL/LH

15. *awa > *uwa.

    *h₂éwo (“away, off”) > *Háwa > *áwa > *úwa > *wo (“accusative marker; away, off”) 1.3 L

16. Fortition of *w as *p after *a or *i with some exceptions involving *i, which lowers to *e.

    *néwyos (“new”) > *náwyas > *nawíyas > *napí > *nipi (“new”) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH

17. The sequence *i...ə́ becomes *é...e with a leftward shift in accent.

    *nidréh₂ (“sleep”) > *nidráH > *nirə́ > *nére > *ne (“sleep”) 1.1 H(H)

    *wiHrós (“man”) > *wiHrás > *wirə́ > *wére > *we (“man”) 1.x

18. Syllable-final *ya after consonants becomes *e (> Old Japanese e₂).

    *dʰoHnéh₂ (“grain”) > *dʰaHnáH > *dʰaHnyáH > *tanyá > *tane (“seed”) 2.4b LH

19. Accented word-final *nt becomes *t in some cases, probably dialectal.

    *péyh₂wō (“fat (noun)”) > *píHwā > *pyuntás > *puto (“fat (adjective)”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

    *skendʰós (“shoulder”) > *skandʰás > *kandás > *kata (“shoulder”) 2.4b LH

20. In numerous cases, a word-final high pitch following a nasal consonant becomes low, causing the creation of accent classes 2.3 and 3.4.
21. Adjectives with word-final high pitch also undergo the same process, regardless of the environment, also affecting nouns derived from it.

1. *n̥m > *n̥w, in some cases changing to *y conditioned by accent.

   *dméh₂ (“at home”) > *dmáH > *ń̥wa > *ya (“house”) 1.3 L

   *n̥smé- (“we”) > *n̥smá- > *n̥wá > *wa (“we”) 1.1/1.2 H(H)/H(L)

2. *n̥ vocalizes into a high vowel.

   *dméh₂ (“at home”) > *dmáH > *ń̥wa > *íwa > *ya (“house”) 1.3 L

   *h₁entér (“inside, within”) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári > *n̥túri > *utúri > *utui (“inside, within”) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH

3. Lenition of unaccented *p as *w or *w̃.

   *nepōtkós (“grandson”) > *napātkás > *nupaká > *nuw̃ãká > *mmanka (“grandchild”) 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH

4. *p is lost (probably via lenition first) if the following vowel is unaccented and is followed by a syllable containing *p or *t.

   *pedóm (“footprint”) > *padám > *ato (“footprint”) 2.4a LH

   *pēntéh₂ (“heel”) > *pāntáH > *anto (“heel”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

   *pn̥kʷtós (“fifth”) > *pn̥ktás > *pitú > *witú > *etu (“five”) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH

   *pro- + *dédeh₃ti (“to give”) > *pradádaHti > *atárari > *atapai (“to give”) 3.I H-

5. Assimilation of non-initial *n...r as *r...r.

   *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *siróri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H-

   *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinátˢti > *kiróri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-

6. Loss of unaccented *r in labial environments, otherwise an epenthetic *p is inserted. This creates a new set of diphthongs.

   *pro- + *dédeh₃ti (“to give”) > *pradádaHti > *atárari > *atapai (“to give”) 3.I H-

   *sélos (“marsh”) > *sáras > *sára > *sapa (“marsh”) 2.1/2.2 HH/HL

7. Loss of *a before a sequence *wi, with a later addition of epenthetic *i alongside a high pitch.

   *néwyos (“new”) > *náwyas > *nawíyas > *napí > *mipi, *nipi (“new”) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH

8. Loss of unaccented initial *i or *u, in some cases they are retained with a high pitch.

   *h₃eletnís (“elbow”) > *Haratníš > *upa-řatníš > *penti (“elbow”) 2.2 HL

   *Hikʷnés (“of the liver”) > *Hiknás > *ikinó > *kinó > *kimo (“liver”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

9. *n > *m near single *o.

   *ḱinós (“lying down”) > *ćiHnás > *ćíHnas > *síno > *simo (“down”) 2.2 HL

   *Hikʷnés (“of the liver”) > *Hiknás > *ikinó > *kinó > *kimo (“liver”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

10. *wi > dialectal *i (probably via earlier *yi) or *yu.

    *h₁wi- (“away”) + *gʷeh₂- (“to go, step”) > *Hwi-gaH- > *wík- > *iku, *yuku (“to go”) 2.I H-

    *pn̥kʷtós (“fifth”) > *pn̥ktás > *witú > *etu (“five”) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH

11. Syncope of unaccented syllables containing *m, *n, *r, and *y, which may cause a 1.2 or 2.5 accent pattern via nasalization.

    *dʰwórom (“door”) > *dʰwā́ram > *túra > *to (“door”) 1.1 H(H)

    *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námu > *nã > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)

    *nepōtkós (“grandson”) > *napātkás > *nuw̃ãká > *nw̃ãká > *mmanka (“grandchild”) 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH

    *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (“shade, shadow”) > *skʲaHyáH > *kayiká > *kãnkãi > *kankai (“shade, shadow”) 2.5a LF

    *swóydos (“sweat”) > *swáydas > *āswáydas > *asíra > *asyã > *asya (“sweat”) 2.5b LF

12. *w̃ > *m and denasalization of vowels (but may cause nasal spreading).

    *nepōtkós (“grandson”) > *napātkás > *nw̃ãká > *mmanka (“grandchild”) 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH

    *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námu > *nã > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)

    *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (“shade, shadow”) > *skʲaHyáH > *kayiká > *kãnkai > *kankai (“shade, shadow”) 2.5b LF