| Affix | Funktion | Examples | Oprindelse | N. Germ. cognates | Notes (productive) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -en | Gerund-like centaur nominals (kentaurnominaler) | køben, løben, råben, banden, viden, skrigen, medvirken, rislen, bæven, hvislen, henstillen, mediteren, søgen | North Germanic suffix , , spread under influence of German nominalised infinitives[1] | ja | ||
| -else | Verbal nouns: nomen actionis, some of which have since developed specific meanings | følelse, forbløffelse, fristelse, forsendelse, ragelse, meddelelse, skrivelse, spøgelse, undtagelse, fordybelse, fornemmelse, værelse, forkølelse | lavtysk -ilsi, -ilso (cite) | -else | nej | |
| -ing | Verbal nouns (nomen actionis):
1) process of an action 2) result or product of an action (sometimes undifferentiated) |
deling, kåring, , , , | norrønt | -ing, -ing | Variant of -ning before many verb stems ending -l, -n, -r; combines with most verbs, sometimes rarer than equivalent in -else[2] | |
| mening, forening, stilling, erfaring, ytring, forbedring, foræring, bevikling, hvævling, legering, opsparing, udmunding | ||||||
| Verbal nouns loaned or formed under influence of:
3) German, Low German; 4) English |
ernæring, hindring, madding, næring, regering, , | |||||
| camping, doping, dressing, marketing, smoking (c.f. Smoking), shipping | ||||||
| 5) nouns referring to:
people inhabitants |
arving, dronning, olding, høvding, hedning, galning, nidding, usling, | |||||
| 6) animals | fjæsing, ising, lemming | |||||
| alsing (⇽ Als), falstring (⇽ Falster), skåning (⇽ Skåne), islænding (⇽ Island), færing (⇽ Færøerne), (⇽ ) | ||||||
| -ning | 1) verbal nouns: nomen actionis, especially carrying out of an action | ridning, regning, bygning, drejning, brydning, forskning, gerning, luftning, oplysning, amning, såning, klapning, malkning, nødning, skydning, holdning | norrønt | -ning, -ning | Combines with most verbs, sometimes rarer than equivalent in -else[2] | |
| 2) composite nouns from verbs[3] | lodtrækning, maskinskrivning | Diderichsen, p33 | ||||
| 3) nouns (rare) | slægtning (⇽ slægt) | |||||
| -ling | 1) nouns denoting (esp. young) people; also siblings (twins, triplets, etc.) | lærling, opkomling, svækling, særling, yndling, yngling, krøbling, pusling | ||||
| tvilling, trilling, firling, femling, seksling, syvling | ||||||
| 2) nouns denoting animal young, small animals | grævling, gæsling, hvilling, hvilling, kutling, kylling, ælling, musling, killing | |||||
| 3) nouns loaned or formed under influence of German and Low German | vælling, stikling (⇽ Steckling ⇽ stecken), syrling (⇽ syr, c.f. Säuerling ⇽ sauer), , | rare, unproductive | ||||
| -ende | 1) verbal nouns
2) nouns (rare, non productive) |
foregivende, forehavende, udseende, velgående, tilgodehavende, jordtilliggende, sigende | ? | -ande | især i nogle dialekter | |
| tidende, tit, tiende, , søskende, | ||||||
| -eri | Verbal nouns: nomen actionis, usually an enterprise or vocation
but sometimes also an activity or result |
vaskeri, tyveri, bryggeri, terperi, , | lavtysk -erîe, -erie or -erie (cite) | |||
| nouns from other nouns | , , , , , , , , , , | |||||
| Subject, vocation, enterprise (or place where such is practiced) | bageri, røgeri, slagteri, trykkeri, bryggeri, fiskeri, byggeri, bogholderi, gæstgiveri, rederi, mejeri, raffinaderi, stenhuggeri, , , , , , , , , , , | |||||
| mager-i | trades | skomageri, urmageri, pottemageri, buntmageri, , , , , , , | ||||
| kurmageri, projektmageri, frasemageri, fidusmageri, bluffmageri, versemageri, | ||||||
| a product or work area | broderi, lingeri, maleri, , | |||||
| -er1 /ʌ/ | nomen agentis:
1) animate agents from verbs 2) inanimate agents from verbs 3) agents from nouns |
slagter, maler, lærer, murer, sanger, sejler, digter, dommer, jæger, klokker | c.f. da: -er2, -ier, -ner | |||
| bagagebærer, øloplukker, fryser, damper, råber, viser, , , | ||||||
| skuespiller (⇽ skuespil), (⇽ ), (⇽ ), (⇽ ), (⇽ ), (⇽ ) | ||||||
| 4) clippings designating places where a certain activity occurs | bygger (⇽ byggelegeplads), børner (⇽ børnehave), døgner (⇽ døgnkiosk), fjerner (⇽ fjernsyn), fritter (⇽ fritidshjem), svømmer (⇽ svømmehal), vugger (⇽ vuggestue) | |||||
| 5) nouns designating an action of short duration | griner, krammer, kigger, lytter, ommer, opstrammer, opfrisker, slapper, vasker, , , | |||||
| -er2 /ˈeˀɐ̯/ | nomen agentis loaned or formed under influence of French, sometimes via other Germanic languages | officer, musketer, juveler, kurer, grenader, brigader, barber, morter | -ier, -ārius | |||
| -sel | Verbal nouns | færdsel, fødsel, fængsel, advarsel, , | related to da: -else | |||
| -ion | Nouns (classical borrowings) | legion, religion, opinion, union, region, Category:Danish terms suffixed with -ion | Relatively small number compared with -tion and variants | |||
| -tion | Verbal nouns for classical borrowings | aktion, diktion, lotion, motion, ration, stationCategory:Danish terms suffixed with -tion | latin | Often but not always the classical verb was also borrowed and so the word-forming processes can still be observed e.g. information (⇽ informere), abdikation (⇽ abdicere), | ||
| -ation (-tion) | deklaration, evaporation, fermentation, gratulation, invitation, information, klassifikation, abdikation, modulation, notation, operation | |||||
| -ition (-tion) | kondition, position, , , , | |||||
| -sion (-tion) | eksplosion, refleksion, læsion, konversion, fusion, perversion | |||||
| -ssion (-tion) | diskussion, depression, kompression, aggression, digression, fission, session, mission, profession | |||||
| -hed | nouns from adjectives | dumhed, , , , , | ||||
| -inde | feminising suffix | , , , , , | ||||
| -isme | abstract nouns from nouns, adjectives | , , , , , | ||||
| -ist | , , , , , | |||||
| -itet (-icitet, -ositet, -øsitet) | nouns from adjectives | intensitet, , , , , | ||||
| -me | nouns from adjectives | sødme, fedme, rødme, selvfedme, restsødme, | ||||
| Root derivation (rodafledning) | drab (⇽ dræbe), , , , , | |||||
| Affix | Funktion | Examples | Oprindelse | N. Germ. cognates | Notes (productive) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -al | gymnasial, verbal, nominal, normal, , | |||||
| '-agtig | adjectives | blåagtig, dameagtig, forårsagtig, hverdagsagtig, , | lavtysk -achtich, -hachtich | stress on initial element | ||
| -'agtig | barnagtig, grinagtig, nøjagtig, fejlagtig, fordelagtig, løgnagtig, pinagtig | stress on suffix -ágtig | ||||
| -bar | , , , , , | |||||
| -iv | , , , , , | |||||
| -lig | , , , , , | |||||
| -som | , , , , , | |||||
| -dom | , , , , , | |||||
| -dømme | , , , , , | |||||
| -vælde | , , , , , | |||||
| -asteni | , , , , , | |||||
| -ese | , , , , , | |||||
| -itis | , , , , , | |||||
| -lepsi | , , , , , | |||||
| -ose | , , , , , | |||||
| -en | (chemistry) ≠ -an | , , , , , | ||||
| -en | adjectives from verbs | , , , , , | ||||
| -ende | 1) present participles
2) ordinal numbers |
, , , , , | ||||
| , , , , , | ||||||
| Affix | Funktion | Examples | Oprindelse | N. Germ. cognates | Notes (productive) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -e | , , , , , | ||||
| -ere | , , , , , | ||||
| -isere | , , , , , | ||||
| , , , , , | |||||
| Affix | Funktion | Examples | Oprindelse | N. Germ. cognates | Notes (productive) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Root derivation (rodafledning) | drab (⇽ dræbe), sang (⇽ synge), (⇽ ), (⇽ ), (⇽ ), (⇽ ) | |||||
| at + infinitive | At infinitives can function as nominals |
</references>
https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/nominalisering
https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/verbalsubstantiv
https://sproget.dk/raad-og-regler/artikler-mv/svarbase/SV00000067
se også (norsk): https://godtigang.com/oppgaver/grammatikk-kap-14-06/
suffiks -ende: https://bibliotek.dk/da/work/870971-tsart:83149337
Ruth Feil, Funktionsverber i det danske sprog (download: https://tidsskrift.dk/nsil/article/download/19636/17256)
Substantivierungssuffixe: -chen (wie in Stückchen) | -e (wie in Liebe) | -ei (wie in Bäckerei) | -el (wie in Ärmel) | -en (wie in Polen) | -er (wie in Berliner) | -heit (wie in Kindheit) | -ien (wie in Jordanien) | -iker (wie in Dramatiker) | -in (wie in Professorin) | -keit (wie in Sauberkeit) | -lein (wie in Männlein) | -ler (wie in Künstler) | -ling (wie in Frühling) | -nis (wie in Geheimnis) | -rich (wie in Fähnrich) | -sal (wie in Rinnsal) | -schaft (wie in Leidenschaft) | -sel (wie in Mitbringsel) | -tum (wie in Bürgertum) | -ung (wie in Erhebung)
Adjektivierungssuffixe: -bar (wie in fahrbar) | -en (wie in golden) | -erig (wie in pfefferig) | -ern (wie in steinern) | -fach (wie in einfach) | -frei (wie in bleifrei) | -haft (wie in scherzhaft) | -ig (wie in geschäftig) | -isch (wie in schwäbisch) | -lich (wie in häuslich) | -los (wie in freudlos) | -mäßig (wie in berufsmäßig) | -sam (wie in bedeutsam) | -sch (wie in pommersch)
Suffixe der Verbableitung: -el (wie in blödeln) | -er (wie in löchern) | -ig (wie in reinigen)
Andere Suffixe der deutschen Sprache: -ab | -end | -ens | -lei | -mal
Ortsnamen-Suffixe: -a; -ach; -atsch; -atz; -atzsch; -au; -aue; -bach; -beck; -bek; -berg; -borg; -broich; -born; -brunn; -brunnen; -burg; -brück; -brücke; -brügge; -busch; -by; -bü; -dal; -dorf; -dorp; -druf; -druff; -eck; -egge; -egk; -ei; -end; -ey; -feld; -felde; -fels; -ford; -forst; -fort; -furt; -furth; -förde; -gast; -hafen; -hagen; -hain; -hammer; -hart; -hausen; -haven; -heide; -heim; -hof; -hoff; -holm; -holt; -holz; -hoven; -horst; -husen; -hübel; -hütte; -in; -ing; -ingen; -itsch; -itz; -itzsch; -kerken; -kirch; -kirchen; -kloster; -land; -leben; -lohe; -mark; -markt; -mole; -molen; -möle; -mölen; -mühl; -mühle; -mühlen; -ow; -ov; -rich; -roda; -rode; -rose; -see; -stadt; -stedt; -stein; -städt; -stetten; -sund; -tal; -trop; -trup; -vörde; -wald; -walde; -wangen; -weiler; -wold; -wolde; -zell
ab- | achter- | affen- | aller- | Allerwelts- | Amateur- | an- | arsch- | Atom- | auf- | aus- | auseinander- | außen- | außer- | bären- | be- | bei- | bein- | bettel- | bier- | Bilderbuch- | Binnen- | bitter- | blitz- | blut- | bomben- | brand- | brüll- | brunz- | bullen- | Chef- | da- | dafür- | dagegen- | daher- | dahin- | dahinter- | daneben- | dar- | davon- | davor- | dazu- | Drecks- | durch- | Durchschnitts- | ein- | empor- | ent- | entgegen- | entlang- | entzwei- | er- | erz- | fehl- | Feld-Wald-und-Wiesen- | fern- | fort- | für- | ge- | gegen- | gegenüber- | general- | gold- | gotts- | granaten- | grotten- | grund- | haar- | hagel- | hammer- | hauch- | Haupt- | Heiden- | heil- | heim- | her- | herab- | heran- | herauf- | heraus- | herbei- | herein- | hernieder- | herüber- | herum- | herunter- | hervor- | hie- | himmel- | hin- | hinab- | hinan- | hinauf- | hinaus- | hindurch- | hinein- | hinter- | Hinterhof- | hinüber- | hinunter- | hinweg- | hinzu- | hoch- | Höllen- | horn- | hunde- | idioten- | ineinander- | innen- | inner- | irgend- | Jahrhundert- | kack- | Kaiser- | kern- | kerzen- | Killer- | klapper- | Klasse- | klatsch- | klitsch- | klimper- | knack- | knall- | knochen- | knüppel- | kotz- | krach- | kreuz- | Kult- | lamm- | letzt- | Lieblings- | los- | Mammut- | Marathon- | massen- | mause- | Meister- | miss- | mit- | mittel- | Möchtegern- | Monster- | mords- | Muster- | nach- | nagel- | narren- | neben- | nicht- | nieder- | Nobel- | Null- | Nullachtfünfzehn- | ober- | ochsen- | Operetten- | Parade- | patsch- | pech- | pfunds- | platsch- | Pracht- | Problem- | pudel- | puppen- | quatsch- | quietsch- | ran- | rappel- | rauf- | raus- | rein- | riesen- | rüber- | rück- | rum- | runter- | sau- | scheiß- | Schlüssel- | Schmalspur- | schwarz- | schweine- | schwer- | Sonder- | Sonntags- | Spitzen- | splitter- | spott- | staub- | stein- | sterbens- | stief- | stink- | stock- | stroh- | strunz- | Teufels- | tief- | tod- | traum- | über- | um- | umher- | un- | unter- | ur- | ver- | voll- | Vollblut- | vor- | voran- | vorauf- | voraus- | vorbei- | vorüber- | Wahnsinns- | weg- | Wegwerf- | weiter- | welt- | Westentaschen- | wider- | wieder- | wunder- | zer- | zu- | zurecht- | zurück- | zusammen- | zwischen-
Vorangestellt: a-/an-/ana-/ar- | aer(o)- | all(o)- | amph(i)- | andr(o)- | anthropo- | ant(i)- | ap(o)-/aph- | arachno- | arch- | astr(o)- | aut(o)- | bar- | biblio- | bio- | brady- | chlor(o)- | chromato-/chromo- | chron(o)- | daktylo- | dem(o)- | dendr(o)- | dermat(o)-/derm(o)- | di-/dia-/diar- | dys- | ek-/ex- | ekto- | en-/endo-/em- | ep-/eph-/epi- | ergo- | erythr(o)- | eu-/ev- | exo- | gameto- | gastr(o)- | geo- | gluco-/gluko-/glyko- (glyc-, glyk-, glyz-) | graf(o)-/graph(o)- | gyn(o)-/gynäko- | hal(o)- | häm(o)-/hämat(o)- | heli(o)- | hemi- | heter(o)- | hipp(o)- | hom(o)- | homö(o)- | hydr(o)- | hygr(o)- | hyper- | hyp(o)- | ichthy(o)- | is(o)- | kardi(o)- | kat(a)- | kin- | kopr(o)- | kosm(o)- | kry(o)- | krypt(o)- | lept(o)- | log(o)- | makro- | meg(a)- | melan- | meso- | met(a)- | mikr(o)- | mim- | morph- | nekr(o)- | neo- | neur(o)- | nom(o)- | odont(o)- | öko- | olig(o)- | ophthalm(o)- | opt(o)- | orth(o)- | ot(o)- | päd(o)- | palä(o)- | pan- | par(a)- | peri- | pharma(ko)- | phil- | phon- | phos-/photo-/(foto-) | phys(io)- | phyt(o)- | plagio- | pneu- | polit- | poly- | pro- | prot(o)- | pseud(o)- | psych(o)- | pterido- | pyr(o)- | steno- | sy-/syl-/sym-/syn- | tacho-/tachy- | tel(e)- | thanat(o)- | theo- | therm(o)- | top(o)- | xeno- | zo(o)- | zykl(o)-/cycl(o)-
mon(o)-) | di- | tri- | tetr(a)- | pent(a)- | hex(a)- | hept(a)- | okt(a)- | ennea- | deka- | hekt(o)- | Kilo-
Nachgestellt: -algie | -arch(ie) | -ase | -ästhesie | -derm(ie) | -drom | -eder | -em | -erg(ie) | -fon(ie)/-phon(ie) | -gen | -gnosie | -gon(ie) | -gramm | -graph(ie)/-graf(ie) | -iater/-iatrie | -ik | -itis | -kardie | -krat(ie) | -lekt | -log/-loge/-logie | -lyse | -ma | -man(ie) | -mantie | -meter | -metrie | -morph | -nom(ie) | -nym | -ode | -o(id) | -om | -on | -ose | -pädie | -pathie | -phag(e/ie) | -phil(ie) | -phob(ie) | -phrenie | -phyt/-physe | -plast/-plasie | -polis | -skop(ie) | -som | -sophie | -thek | -therm | -thymie | -tomie | -ton(ie) | -top(ie) | -trop(ie) | -troph(ie) | -urg(ie)
Vorangestellt: ab- (a-, abs-) | ad- (ac-, af-, ag-, ak-, al-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, at-) | amb(i)- | ante- | äqui- | de(s)- | dis- (di-, dif-) | ex- (e-, ef-) | extra- | in- (il-, im-, ir-) | infra- | inter- | intra- | intro- | juxta- | kon- (ko-, kol-, kom-, kor-) | konter- | kontra- | multi- | non- | ob- (oc-, of-, ok-, op-) | omni- | per- | post- | prä- | präter- | pro- | quasi- | re/(d)- | retro- | semi- | sub- (suf-, sug-, suk-, sup-, sur-) | super- | supra- | trans- (tra-, tran-) | ultra- | Vize- | zirkum- | zis-/cis-
uni- | bi(n)- | tri- | okt(o)-
Nachgestellt: -abel (-ibel) | -al | -and | -ant | -anz | -ar | -arium | -är | -at | -ent | -enz | -ese | -ion (-ation, -ition, -tion) | -ismus | -ist | -iter | -ment | -or | -tät | -zid
Nachgestellt: -ade | -age | -ell | -esk | -ette | -ie | -ier | -ität | -iv | -ös
This is a draft for an appendix which deals with the system of morphological analysis for the Russian language known as the single-stem system which was developed by Roman Jakobsen and built upon by Charles E. Townsend, Charles Gribble and others. For an overview based on the more traditional two-stem anlysis, see instead Appendix:Russian verbs.
| Type | Conjugation, verbal derivation; adjectival comparison | Nom., adj. derivation | Church
Slavonic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Subclass | Velars | Historic | Velars | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Consonant | д | т | з | с | ст | ск | ц | м | б | п | в | ф | г | к | х | л | н | р | г | к | х | ск | ц | к | д | т | ||
| Mutation | ж | ч | ж | ш | щ | щ | ч | мл' | бл' | пл' | вл' | фл' | ж | ч | ш | л' | н' | р' | ж | ч | ш | щ | ч | ц | жд | щ | ||
| 1 | 2 | Examples | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Consonant | Mutation: within paradigm | Mutation: participles, deverbals | Mutation: impf. derivation | ||
| д /d/ |
ж /ʐ/ |
погла́дить pf (pogláditʹ) | погла́жу (poglážu, 1sg.) | погла́жен m (poglážjen, past pass. part.) | погла́живать impf (pogláživatʹ) |
| перегородить pf (peregoroditʹ) | перегорожу (peregorožu, 1sg.) | перегорожен m (peregorožjen, past pass. part.) | преграждать impf (pregraždatʹ), | ||
| т /t/ |
ч /t͡ɕ/ |
отве́тить pf (otvétitʹ) | отвечу (otveču, 1sg.) | отве́чен m (otvéčjen, past pass. part) | отвеча́ть impf (otvečátʹ) |
| растра́тить | растра́чу | растра́чен | растра́чивать | ||
| з /z/ |
ж /ʐ/ |
грузить | гружу | груженный | выгружать |
| с /s/ |
ш /ʂ/ |
спроси́ть (sprosítʹ) | спрошу́ (sprošú) | спро́шен m (spróšjen, past pass. part.) | спра́шивать impf (sprášivatʹ) |
| бро́сить | бро́шу | бро́шен | |||
| ст /st/ |
щ /ɕː/ |
вы́чистить | вы́чищу | вы́чищен | вычища́ть |
| ск /sk/ |
щ /ɕː/ |
плескать | плещу
плещи |
плещущий | |
| ц /t͡s/ |
ч /t͡ɕ/ |
||||
| м /m/ |
млʹ /mlʲ/ |
изумить | изумлю | изумлён | изумлять |
| б /b/ |
блʹ /blʲ/ |
влюби́ть (vljubítʹ) | влюблю (vljublju, 1sg) | влю́блен m (vljúbljen, past pass. part.) | влюблять |
| руби́ть (rubítʹ) | рублю́ (rubljú, 1sg) | ру́блен m (rúbljen, past pass. part.) | |||
| п /p/ |
плʹ /plʲ/ |
купить (kupitʹ) | куплю (kuplju) | ||
| в /v/ |
влʹ /vlʲ/ |
ставить (stavitʹ) | ставлю (stavlju) | ||
| ф /f/ |
флʹ /flʲ/ |
графи́ть (grafítʹ) | графлю | ||
| г /ɡ/ |
ж /ʐ/ |
могут | можешь | ||
| к /k/ |
ч /t͡ɕ/ |
||||
| х /x/ |
ш /ʂ/ |
||||
| л /l/ |
лʹ /lʲ/ |
изжа́лить | изжа́лю | изжа́лен | изжа́ливать |
| н /n/ |
нʹ /nʲ/ |
оцени́ть | оценю́ | оценён | оце́нивать |
| р /r/ |
рʹ /rʲ/ |
говорить | говорю | говорён | |
| спорить | спорю | ||||
For some verbs this process can be hard to see because the consonant mutation only occurs across the word-family. Consonants г, к, х, ск and ц mutate before the verbal stems -и- and -е-, for example:
The motion verb pair таскать, таскаю, таскают vs. тащить, тащу, тащут (analysable as таск и -tʹ, таск-и -u, таск и -ut),[4] c.f. таскивать
| 1 | 2 | Consonant | Mutation | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| г /ɡ/ |
ж /ʐ/ |
слуг m (slug, noun) | слу́жба f (slúžba), | |
| кни́га f (kníga, noun) | кни́жный m (knížnyj, adjective) | |||
| друг m (drug, noun) | дружо́к m (družók, noun), дру́жба f (drúžba, noun), дру́жеский m (drúžjeskij, adjective) | |||
| к /k/ |
ч /t͡ɕ/ |
река́ f (reká) | ре́чка f (réčka), речно́й m (rečnój, adj.), речни́к m (rečník, noun) | |
| вели́кий m (velíkij, adjective) | вели́чие n (velíčije, noun), вели́чество n (velíčjestvo, noun), величина́ f (veličiná, noun) | |||
| знак m (znak, noun) | значе́ние n (značjénije, noun), значо́к m (značók, noun), значи́тельный m (značítelʹnyj, adjective) | |||
| х /x/ |
ш /ʂ/ |
ти́хий m (tíxij, adjective) | тишина́ f (tišiná, noun) | |
| дух m (dux, noun) | душа́ f (dušá, noun), ду́шный m (dúšnyj, adj.), душе́вный m (dušjévnyj, adj.), душево́й m (dušjevój, adj.) | |||
| чех m (čex, noun) | че́шка f (čéška, noun), че́шский m (čéšskij, adj.) | |||
| ск /sk/ |
щ /ɕː/ |
ба́рский m (bárskij, adjective) | ба́рщина f (bárščina, noun), | |
| воск m (vosk, noun) | вощи́на f (voščína, noun), воща́нка f (voščánka, noun) | |||
| ц /t͡s/ |
ч /t͡ɕ/ |
оте́ц m (otéc) | оте́ческий m (otéčjeskij, adjective), | |
| купе́ц m (kupéc) | купе́ческий m (kupéčjeskij, adjective), | |||
| ме́сяц m (mésjac, noun) | ме́сячный m (mésjačnyj, adjective), | |||
| к /k/ |
ц /t͡s/ |
дура́к m (durák, noun) | дура́цкий m (duráckij, adjective), | |
| каза́к m (kazák, noun) | каза́цкий m (kazáckij, adjective), |
Restricted to a small number of verbs and certain noun - adjective pairings
| 1 | 2 | Consonant | Mutation: 1sg | Mutation: past passive particple | Mutation: imperfective derivation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| д /d/ |
жд /ʐd/ |
принудить pf (prinuditʹ) | принужу (prinužu, 1sg.)[Note 1] | принуждён m (prinuždjon, past pass. part.) | принуждать impf (prinuždatʹ), |
| преградить pf (pregraditʹ) | прегражу (pregražu, 1sg.)[Note 1] | преграждён m (pregraždjon, past pass. part.) | преграждать impf (pregraždatʹ), | ||
| т /t/ |
щ /ɕː/ |
защитить pf (zaščititʹ) | защищу (zaščišču, 1sg.) | защищён m (zaščiščjon, past pass. part.) | защищать impf (zaščiščatʹ) |
| отвратить pf (otvratitʹ) | отвращу (otvrašču, 1sg.) | отвращён m (otvraščjon, past pass. part.) | отвращать impf (otvraščatʹ) |
Russian roots by their nature consonantal (that is, ending in a consonant) and may form words by combination with prefixes or suffixes (which include the various class of zero suffix) as well as the inflectional endings. Roots are theoretical forms, that is they never appear on their own (and any case where they do can be formally analysed as including a)
Stems on the other hand may be either consonantal or non-consonantal (ending in a vowel). Stems consist of a root which imparts the basic meaning and may be suffixed by a verbal stem. According to the single-stem system of analysis, almost all Russian verbs can be divided into two broad classes:
The basic form, from which the root can be clearly identified and all other forms including can be derived is for all consonant stems the third person plural, while for vowel stems the infinitive serves as the basic form. This is because of the truncation rules described above.
The exceptions number under thirty, the vast majority of which fit into one of the regular classes with only minor irregularities. The only two truly anomalous stems under this system: дад-ут (give) and ед-ят (eat), which nonetheless share many similarities with one another.
| Type[vbtable 1] | Model verb | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Syllabic resonants | ||||||||||||
| В | жив-ут | |||||||||||
| Н | ден-ут | |||||||||||
| Й[stems 1] | дуй-ут | |||||||||||
| ОЙ | мой-ут | |||||||||||
| ИЙ | пий-ут | |||||||||||
| Nonsyllabic resonants | ||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||
Notes: Litvish only has two genders, with inanimate objects being mostly assigned a feminine gender. Diminutives retain their base noun gender.
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| -∅ | First person singular
Imperative singular |
||
| ־סט (-st) | Second person singular | ||
| ־ט (-t) | Third person singular
Second person plural Imperative plural |
||
| -ṇ ־ן (-n) | Infinitive (regular verbs)
First person plural Third person plural |
||
| -ṇdik ־נדיק (-ndik) | |||
| ge- + umlaut + -ən ־ן (-n) + גע־ (ge-) | Past participle (strong verbs) | רײַסן (raysn) ⇾ געריסן (gerisn) | |
| ge- + umlaut + -t ־ט (-t) + גע־ (ge-) | Past participle (weak verbs) | מאַכן (makhn) ⇾ געמאַכט (gemakht) | |
| ge- גע־ (ge-) | Derivational/fossilised historic prefixations (greykhṇ) | greykhṇ גרייכן (greykhn) |
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| ~-s[1] ־ס (-s) | Plural formation of nouns | Most nouns with unstressed final -ə ־ע (-e), -m ־ם (-m), -əm ־עם (-em), -ṇ ־ן (-n), -en ־ען (-en). Words of foreign origin with unstressed, non-reduced final vowel (auto, radio, etc.) Nouns in -er ־ער (-er) not referring to humans[2]; in some contexts, also human agentives in -er ־ער (-er) | Sometimes alternates with ־ן (-n), ־ען (-en), especially in journalistic and some formal usage; where both exist, the latter usually engenders a more abstract meaning.[3] |
| -ṇ ־ן (-n), ־ען (-en) | Plural formation | Some inherited Germanic vocabulary; Daytshmerisms; some non-diminutives in syllabic -ḷ ־ל (-l) | Common in political terminology borrowed from German in the 19th century.[3] |
| -er ־ער (-er) | Plural formation | Many inherited Germanic words; a very small number of words of Semitic origin, e.g. pónəm פּנים (pnim) ⇾ pénəmər פּנימער (pnimer). | May or may not also involve vowel shift (umlaut) |
| ∅ + umlaut | Plural formation | Many inherited Germanic words | |
| ∅ | Plural formation | Nouns referring to humans in -er ־ער (-er) (with some exceptions); handful of nouns with various endings | In some contexts, human agentives in -er ־ער (-er) pluralise instead with ־ס (-s)[4] |
| ~-s[1] ־ס (-s), | Plural formation | Family names | ־עס (-es) after names ending in sibilants: ־ז, ־זש, ־סש, ־ס, ־צ, ־ש |
| ~-əs[1] ־עס (-es) | Plural formation | Some nouns, mostly those of Slavic origin. | Sometimes stem undergoes vowel changes |
| -im, -əm ־ים (-im) | Plural formation | 1) Some nouns of Semitic origin in unstressed -ə ־א (-a), -ə ־ה (-h), e.g. יום־טובֿ (yontev) ⇾ יום־טובֿים (yontoyvem);
2) Small number of nouns of non-Semitic origin, e.g. דאָקטער (dokter) ⇾ דאָקטוירים (doktoyrim); נאַר (nar) ⇾ נאַראָנים (naronim); פּויער (poyer) ⇾ פּויערים (poyerim); |
Stress shifts to penultimate syllable; many stems undergo vowel changes[5]; Sometimes a syllable is added or changed between stem and suffix
Most nouns in -er ־ער (-er), -or ־אָר (-or) acquire a pejorative or sarcastic sense when pluralised this way |
| -əs ־ותֿ (-us) | Plural formation | Mostly nouns of Semitic origin (most in unstressed -ə ־א (-a), -ə ־ה (-h); some ending in a consonant); מעשׂה (mayse/manse) ⇾ מעשׂיות (mayses/manses); אות (os) ⇾ אותיות (oysyes); | Stress shifts to penultimate syllable; many stems undergo vowel changes;[5] final -ə ־ה (-h) is dropped; phonetically identical with ~-əs ־עס (-es) |
| -əkh, -akh ־עך (-ekh) | Plural formation | Nouns ending in syllabic -ḷ ־ל (-l) | Mandatory for diminutives; some non-diminutives alternate with ־ען (-en) |
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| ∅ | |||
| er (-ṇ)? | |||
| e | |||
| en | |||
| em | |||
| s | |||
| er | |||
| et |
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| prefixes: | |||
| ge- גע־ (ge-) | verbal (past tense & derivational/historic) & nominal? (collective) | ||
| גע־ (ge-) |
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| -ke- | |||
| -eve- |
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| -∅ | Nominalisations from verbal stems | Masculine; vowel often follows past participle[6] | |
| -or ־אָר (-or) | Forms masculine agentives | ||
| -íst ־יסט (-ist) | Forms masculine agentives | Stressed | |
| -nik ־ניק (-nik) | Forms masculine agentives | See also: ־ניצע (-nitse) | |
| -ént ־ענט (-ent) | Forms masculine agentives | Stressed | |
| -éts ־עץ (-ets) | Forms masculine agentives | ||
| -er ־ער (-er) | Forms masculine agentives | ||
| -úk ־וק (-uk) | Forms masculine agentives | Pejorative; stressed[6] | |
| -ák ־אַק (-ak)-yák ־יאַק (-yak) | Forms masculine agentives | Pejorative; stressed[6] | |
| -ə ־א (-a) | Unstressed final vowels generally feminine, except where semantic masculinity overrides[7] | ||
| -ə ־ה (-h) | Unstressed final vowels generally feminine, except where semantic masculinity overrides[7] | ||
| -ə ־ע (-e) | Unstressed final vowels generally feminine, except where semantic masculinity overrides[7] | ||
| -hayt ־הײַט (-hayt) | Generally feminine[7] | ||
| -kayt ־קײַט (-kayt) | Generally feminine[7] | ||
| -ung ־ונג (-ung) | Generally feminine[7] | ||
| -úr ־ור (-ur) | Generally feminine[7] | ||
| -əs ־ותֿ (-us) | Generally feminine; occasionally neuter[7][8] | ||
| -ik ־יק (-ik) | Generally feminine[7] | ||
| -ənish ־עניש (-enish) | Generally feminine; occasionally neuter[7][8] | ||
| -énts | Generally feminine[7] | ||
| -ék ־עק (-ek) | Generally feminine[7] | ||
| -əráy ־ערײַ (-eray) | Generally feminine; occasionally neuter[7][8] | ||
| -shaft ־שאַפֿט (-shaft) | Generally feminine[7] | ||
| -tə ־טע (-te) | Forms feminine agentives | Most frequent feminizing suffix for Semitic component agentives[9] | |
| -tsə ־יצע (-itse) | Forms feminine agentives | ||
| -in ־ין (-in) | Forms feminine agentives | ||
| -kə ־קע (-ke) | Forms feminine agentives | ||
| -∅ (+stem vowel ablaut) | Nominalisations of adjectival stems | קעלט (kelt, “cold”, noun) (c.f. קאַלט (kalt, “cold”, adj), קעלטער (kelter, “colder”, comparative degree)) | Compare German Kälte f (“cold”, noun), kalt (“cold”, adj), kälter (“colder”, comparative degree). Unlike German, there is no final vowel. |
| syllabic -ḷ ־ל (-l) | Diminutive: little | Almost always neuter, except in very rare cases when semantic gender overrides[10] | |
| -ḷe ־עלע (-ele) | Diminutive, 2nd degree: very little | Almost always neuter, except in very rare cases when semantic gender overrides[10] | |
| gə- גע־ (ge-) | Collective | Generally neuter[11] | |
| -varg ־וואַרג (-varg) | "ware" | Generally neuter[11]; Albright argues that this behaves more like a bound stem than a suffix[12] | |
| -tum ־טום (-tum) | Generally neuter[11] | ||
| -s ־ס (-s) | Generally neuter[11] | ||
| -əkhts, -akhts ־עכֿץ (-ekhts) (־עכץ (-ekhts)) | Generally neuter[11] | ||
| -∅ | Nominalisations of: 1) infinitives; 2) adjectives ending in ־ע | Neuter[13] | |
| lekh/-elekh ־עלעך (-elekh)/־לעך (-lekh) | |||
| -lich (very rare) | |||
| ke | |||
| -nost -nost ־נאָסט (-nost) | פּאָטעפֿאַלנאָסט (potefalnost, “audacity”) < פּאָטעפֿאַלנע (potefalne, “audacious”); דאָוויערענאָסט (dovyerenost, “power of attorney”) < Russian доверенность (doverennostʹ) | Extremely rare, only in Slavic loanwords | |
| izm ־יזם (-izm) | |||
| -em ־עם (-em) | |||
| ṇ ־עם (-em) | syllabic | ||
| tshik ־טשיק (-tshik) | |||
| in | |||
| te | |||
| tel/-stel |
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| erheyt | |||
| lekh ־לעך (-lekh) | |||
| ik ־יק (-ik), ־יִק (-ik); ־יג (-ig) (daytshmerish) |
prefixes:
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| ant- אַנט־ (ant-)^ | Unstressed prefix | ||
| ba- באַ־ (ba-)^ | Unstressed prefix | ||
| der- דער־ (der-)^ | Unstressed prefix | ||
| far- פֿאַר־ (far-)^ | 'completeness of action; initiation of a change in circumstances; debasement of the value or success of the action' | Unstressed prefix | |
| ge- גע־ (ge-)^ | Unstressed prefix | ||
| tse- צע־ (tse-)^ | Unstressed prefix | ||
| oys- אויז־ (oyz-) | Stressed prefix | ||
| uf- אויפֿ־ (oyf-) | Stressed prefix | ||
| um- אומ־ (um-) | Stressed prefix | ||
| unter- אונטער־ (unter-) | Stressed prefix | ||
| iber- איבער (iber) | Stressed prefix | ||
| ayn- אײַנ־ (ayn-) | 'enter a new state; change of situation' | Stressed prefix | |
| on- אָנ־ (on-) | Stressed prefix | ||
| op- אָפּ־ (op-) past tense: / | Stressed prefix | ||
| bay- בײַ־ (bay-) | Stressed prefix | ||
| for- פֿאָר־ (for-) | Stressed prefix | ||
| tsu- צו־ (tsu-) | Stressed prefix | ||
| (free stressed prefixes) | |||
| (a)dú(r)kh- אַדורכ־ (adurkh-)/דורכ־ (durkh-) | |||
| ahin- אַהינ־ (ahin-) | |||
| aher- אַהער (aher) | |||
| avek- אַװעק־ (avek-) | |||
| mit- מיט־ (mit-) | |||
| a(nt)kegen- (antkegṇ-)? אַנטקעגנ־ (antkegn-)/אַקעגענ־ (akegen-) | |||
| anider אַנידער־ (anider-) | |||
| arop- אַראָפּ־ (arop-) | |||
| aroys- אַרויס־ (aroys-) | |||
| arúf- אַרויפֿ־ (aroyf-) | |||
| arum- אַרומ־ (arum-) | |||
| arayn- אַרײַנ־ (arayn-) | |||
| arunter- אַרונטער־ (arunter-) | |||
| ariber- אַריבער־ (ariber-) | |||
| nokh- נאָכ־ (nokh-) | |||
| farbay- פֿאַרבײַ־ (farbay-) | |||
| faroys- פֿאַרויס־ (faroys-) | |||
| funander- פֿונאַנדער־ (funander-) | |||
| tsuzamen- צוזאַמענ־ (tsuzamen-) | |||
| tzunoyf- צונויפֿ־ (tsunoyf-) |
| Affix | Function | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| a- | |||
| am- |