Wuzhou Wu, also variably classified as part of Jinqu Wu, is a branch of Wu Chinese spoken primarily in and around the modern-day city of Jinhua, as well as some parts of Quzhou and Hangzhou.
Currently Wiktionary supports a pronunciation module for Old-Period Urban Jinhuanese. This references the Jinhuanese spoken by speakers from Jinhua's city centre, born roughly from the 1920s to the 1930s. This system, however, ought to also be compatible with younger or certain older speaker's lects to an extent.
There is no official government-endorsed romanisation system, but Wiktionary's modules will be using Wugniu's romanisation scheme, with some spelling and formatting extensions devised by Wiktionary. The Wu-Chinese Minidict has also developed a romanisation system hereby listed for reference, but is not officially integrated into Wiktionary architecture.
Syllables are composed of initials and finals, as well as a tone value. Below are all the initials in Jinhuanese. When applicable, colloquial and literary readings will respectively be marked with the subscripts 白 and 文 following the example characters.
Wugniu | Wu-Chinese MiniDict |
IPA | Examples | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bilabial Series | p | p | /p/ | 布幫薄 |
ph | ph | /pʰ/ | 派配泡 | |
b | b | /b/ | 盆步白 | |
m | 'm[note 1] | /(ʔ)m/ | 媽眯貓 | |
m | /m/ | 問白門悶 | ||
f | f | /f/ | 飛弗費 | |
v | v | /v/ | 問文馮婺 | |
Labiodental Series | t | t | /t/ | 到打稻白 |
th | th | /tʰ/ | 天梯太 | |
d | d | /d/ | 田度汏 | |
n | 'n[note 1] | /(ʔ)n/ | 冷囊 | |
n | /n/ | 暖男捼 | ||
l | 'l[note 1] | /(ʔ)l/ | 拎哩拉 | |
l | /l/ | 蘭路連 | ||
Alveolar Series | ts | ts | /ts/ | 追焦早 |
tsh | tsh | /tsʰ/ | 秋粗笡 | |
dz | dz | /dz/ | 池罪茶 | |
s | s | /s/ | 素先想 | |
z | z | /z/ | 牆嚼賊 | |
Palatal Series | c | c | /tɕ/ | 汁準緊 |
ch | ch | /tɕʰ/ | 超溪川 | |
j | j | /dʑ/ | 旗琴舌 | |
gn | 'ny[note 1] | /(ʔ)n̠ʲ/[note 2] | 扭研鳥 | |
ny | /n̠ʲ/[note 2] | 疑魚牛 | ||
sh | sh | /ɕ/ | 書燒善 | |
zh | zh | /ʑ/ | 樹蛇夏 | |
Velar and Null Series | k | k | /k/ | 街歌鋸 |
kh | kh | /kʰ/ | 開箍可 | |
g | g | /ɡ/ | 銜隑夾 | |
ng[note 3] | 'ng[note 1] | /(ʔ)ŋ/ | 我文 | |
ng | /ŋ/ | 礙文外文額文 | ||
∅ | ' | /∅/ obsolete or nonstandard characters (∅), invalid IPA characters (∅)[note 4] | 紅白我白恨 | |
h | h | /x/ | 亨歡佝 | |
gh[note 5] | gh | /ɦ/ | 紅文哈"to tickle" | |
|
The finals are hereby divided into two kinds: there are 51 "regular" finals that can occur in most single-character readings, as well as
Wugniu | Wu-Chinese MiniDict | IPA | Examples |
---|---|---|---|
y | y | /z̩/ | 資志池 / 资志池 |
i | i | /i/ | 醫肥底文 / 医肥底文 |
u | u | /u/ | 鼓舞無文 / 鼓舞无文 |
iu | iu | /y/ | 雨書去文 / 雨书去文 |
oea | yae | /ɤa/ | 爬馬八白 / 爬马八白 |
iaa | iae | /ia/ | 借夜白鐵白 / 借夜白铁白 |
a | a | /ɑ/ | 買鞋白減白 / 买鞋白减白 |
ia | ia | /iɑ/ | 畲夏文亞文 / 畲夏文亚文 |
ua | ua | /uɑ/ | 夏白官白塔白 |
iua | iua | /yɑ/ | 抓瘸株(agriculture) stubble |
o | o | /o/[note 1] | 波文哥文母文 |
oe | oe | /ɤ/ | 波白滿白割白 / 波白满白割白 |
ie | ie | /ie/ | 底白編白接白 / 底白编白接白 |
uo | uoe | /uɤ/ | 過河涴 / 过河涴 |
ioe | iue | /yɤ/ | 靴佔白血白 / 靴占白血白 |
ou | ~[note 2] | /ɯ/ | 去白 |
iei | iea | /ie̞/[note 1] | 社文夜文蛇文 |
ae | ai | /ɛ/ | 賠對改 / 赔对改 |
iae | iai | /iɛ/[note 1] | 吆文解文鞋文 |
uae | uai | /uɛ/ | 塊會拐 / 块会拐 |
iuae | iuai | /yɛ/ | 帥摔衰 / 帅摔衰 |
ei | ei | /ei/ | 碑美隨 / 碑美随 |
ui | ui | /ui/ | 歸桂位 / 归桂位 |
au | au | /ɑu/ | 保泡逃 |
iau | iau | /iɑu/ | 條燒瓢 / 条烧瓢 |
eu | eu | /eu/ | 嘔藕候 / 呕藕候 |
ieu | ieu | /iu/ | 畝狗九 / 亩狗九 |
oen | yaen | /ɤã/[note 3] | 半文判文伴文 |
an | aen | /ã/[note 3] | 班文 |
ian | iaen | /iã/[note 3] | 天文減文 / 天文减文 |
uan | uaen | /uã/[note 3] | 官文短文 |
iuan | iuaen | /yã/[note 3] | 權文佔文 / 权文占文 |
aon | ang | /ɑŋ/ | 黨講白生白 / 党讲白生白 |
iaon | iang | /iɑŋ/ | 良講文 / 良讲文 |
uaon | uang | /uɑŋ/ | 光 |
iuaon | iuang | /yɑŋ/ | 床 |
en | eng | /əŋ/ | 根燈生文 / 根灯生文 |
in | ieng | /iŋ/ | 林星城 |
uen | ueng | /uəŋ/ | 溫昆昏 / 温昆昏 |
iuen | iueng | /yəŋ/ | 雲 / 云 |
on | ong | /oŋ/ | 東風 / 东风 |
ion | iong | /ioŋ/ | 窮中 / 穷中 |
eq | eh | /əʔ/ | 北八文塔文 |
iq | ieh | /iəʔ/ | 藥直鐵文 / 药直铁文 |
ueq | ueh | /uəʔ/ | 骨擴說文 / 骨扩说文 |
iuq | iueh | /yəʔ/ | 出術疫 / 出术疫 |
oq | oh | /oʔ/ | 作木鶴 / 作木鹤 |
ioq | ioh | /ioʔ/ | 竹肉約 / 竹肉约 |
er | r | /əl/[note 1] | 兒文耳文二文 / 儿文耳文二文 |
m | m | /m̩/[note 4] | 無白母白姆白 / 无白母白姆白 |
ng | ng | /ŋ̩/[note 4] | 兒白五白二白 / 儿白五白二白 |
There are 14 finals that are exclusive to erhua forms, listed in the table below. Note that another 5 finals from the "regular final" table above can also occur in erhua readings.
Wiktionary Extended Wugniu |
Wu-Chinese MiniDict |
IPA |
---|---|---|
ynn | yn | /z̩̃/[note 1] |
inn | in | /ĩ/[note 1] |
unn | un | /ũ/[note 1] |
iunn | iun | /ỹ/[note 1] |
ieunn | ieun | /iũ/[note 1] |
an | aen | /ã/[note 2] |
oen | yaen | /ɤã/[note 2] |
ian | iaen | /iã/[note 2] |
uan | uaen | /uã/[note 2] |
iuan | iuaen | /yã/[note 2] |
oenn | oen | /ɤ̃/[note 2] |
enn | en | /ẽ/[note 3] |
ienn | ien | /iẽ/[note 3] |
uenn | uen | /uẽ/[note 3] |
iuenn | iuen | /yẽ/[note 3] |
aunn | aun | /ɔ̃/ |
iaunn | iaun | /iɔ̃/ |
onn | on | /õ/[note 4] |
ionn | ion | /iõ/[note 4] |
|
See the erhua-diminutive section for more.
The tone system in Urban Jinhuanese consists of 7 single-character tones (otherwise known as "citation tones") numbered from 1 to 8, as well as a complex tone sandhi system which generate distinct tone contours for different combinations of underlying character tones.
The tone system in Jinhuanese assigns all its tones to one of two distinct registers: the dark (陰/阴) register and the light (陽/阳) register. Dark tones (tones 1, 3, 5, 7) only occur with voiceless initials while light tones (tones 2, 6, 8) only occur with voiced initials. The null initial, on the other hand, can occur in both tone registers.
Tone register | Tones | Can co-occur with |
---|---|---|
Dark (陰/阴) | 1, 3, 5, 7 | Voiceless initials |
Light (陽/阳) | 2, 6, 8 | Voiced initials |
The 8 tones are numbered according to Middle Chinese tone categories, and the general convention for Wugniu tone-numbering (see here). The tone number 4 is absent in monosyllables due to all historical tone 4 syllables having been merged into tone 3. In fact, such historical tone mergers and categorical shifts — along with other factors — contribute the irregularities in individual characters' tones and their respective behaviour in tone sandhi units.
To account for this, the {{zh-pron}}
module utlises a tone numbering system with additional "underlying tone" inputs that help calculate the exact correct tone value after sandhi. However, the tone numbers that will show up will still be the citation tone numbers. For example, the input 5CX X4
will output the IPA tone sandhi contour based the underlying tones of 5C
and 4
, however, the Wugniu romanisation display will output 5X X3
, merging both of these underlying tones into their respective citation tone category. Consult also the Wiktionary style guide on Wu tone notation for more details.
There are 7 citation tones in Urban Jinhuanese.
All the available underlying tone categories. The underlying tones 4, 5, and 6 have edge-cases where they generate alternative tone sandhi contour, which can be input with
Wugniu Citation tone number | Citation tone name (tone category) |
Underlying (Input) tone number | Underlying tone category | Citation tone value | Example characters |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | dark level 陰平/阴平 |
1 | MC dark level | ˧˧˦ 334 | 高安開天三飛 / 高安开天三飞 |
2 | light level 陽平/阳平 |
2 | MC light level | ˧˩˧ 313 | 窮平神鵝麻文 / 穷平神鹅麻文 |
3 | dark rising 陰上/阴上 |
3 | MC dark rising | ˥˧˥ 535 | 古紙口草手死 / 古纸口草手死 |
4 | MC light rising (vernacular readings) | 老買有坐白稻白後白 / 老买有坐白稻白后白 | |||
4A | Tone 4 characters in specific tone sandhi patterns - see tone sandhi sections. | ||||
5 | dark departing 陰去/阴去 |
5 | MC dark departing | ˥˥ 55 | 醉對唱菜送放 / 醉对唱菜送放 |
5A | MC dark departing in specific tone sandhi patterns - see tone sandhi sections. | ||||
5C | MC dark checked characters from the 山 and 咸 rhyme groups (vernacular reading) | 割白鐵白發白 / 割白铁白发白 | |||
6 | light departing 陽去/阳去 |
6 | MC light departing + MC light rising (literary readings) | ˩˦ 14 | 大病樹坐文稻文後文 / 大病树坐文稻文后文 |
6A | Tone 6 characters in specific tone sandhi patterns - see tone sandhi sections. | ||||
6C | MC light checked characters from the 山 and 咸 rhyme groups (vernacular reading) | 月白葉白罰白 / 月白叶白罚白 | |||
7 | dark checked 陰入/阴入 |
7 | MC dark checked + literary reading of tone 5C characters | ˦ʔ 4 | 一七福割文鐵文發文 / 一七福割文铁文发文 |
8 | light checked 陽入/阳入 |
8 | MC light checked + literary reading of tone 6C characters | ˨˩˨ʔ 212 | 讀白服月文葉文罰文 / 读白服月文叶文罚文 |
The historical
Other than the citation tones, tones also often go through tone sandhi in various occasions.
Tone sandhi in Jinhuanese is quite complex. Aside from the influences from, there are also different types of tone sandhi used under different lexical and morphosyntactical contexts. Cao (2002) has classified them into the following four categories, based on their functions and purposes. In the {{zh-pron}}
input, all except regular sandhi chains require an extra sandhi-type marker to clarify the sandhi-type applicable to the sandhi unit at hand.
Below are the four sandhi-types recognised by the module and their respective input markers:
1cin ua2
)P
at the end of each chain in the input - e.g. 5chiaon kuo1P
, 5Cfoea dzae2P
)T
at the end of each chain in the input - e.g. 1pau tsy3T
, 2gnin tsy3AT
)#
between the number and the classifier in the input - e.g. 1sa#3ua
, 7iq peq7#1ciaon
)Cao (2002) had classified Predicate-Object (PO), Neutralised Tail (NT) and Numeral-Classifier (NC) all under the category of "grammatical sandhi" (語法變調), in opposition to the first sandhi-type which he calls a phonetic sandhi (語音變調).
The sections below will cover more details about each sandhi-type and the sandhi patterns that occur under them.
These sandhi patterns are the most generally applicable to most lexicalised compounds.
Below are the regular disyllabic tone sandhi patterns in Urban Jinhuanese.
Tone of 2nd character Tone of 1st character |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 5C | 6 | 7 | 8 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 33 55 | 33 55 | 33 535 | 33 535 | 33 55 | 33 55 | 33 4 | 33 212 | |
2 | 31 55 | 31 14 | 33 535 | 33 535 | 31 55 | 33 55 | 31 14 | 33 4 | 33 212 |
3 | 55 334 | 55 313 | 53 535 | 53 535 | 53 55 | 55 14 | 53 4 | 55 212 | |
4 | 55 334 | 55 313 | 53 535 | 33 535 | 53 55 | 55 14 | 53 4 | 55 212 | |
4A | 53 55 | ||||||||
5 | 33 55 | 33 14 | 33 535 | 33 535 | 53 55 | 55 14 | 33 4 | 55 212 | |
5A | 33 55 | 33 55 | |||||||
5C | 55 0 | 53 535 | 53 535 | ||||||
6 | 53 55 | 53 14 | 53 535 | 33 535 | 53 55 | 55 14 | 53 4 | 55 212 | |
6A | 53 55 | 33 535 | 31 55 | 31 14 | |||||
6C | 14 0 | ||||||||
7 | 4 55 | 4 55 | 4 535 | 4 535 | 4 55 | 4 14 | 4 4 | 4 212 | |
8 | 21 55 | 21 14 | 21 535 | 21 535 | 21 55 | 21 14 | 21 4 | 21 212 |
For regular trisyllabic sandhi,
The erhua-diminuitive (often referred to as 小稱 in much of the Chinese-language literature) refers to processes historically involving the diminutive suffix 兒/儿, causing vowel umlauts and tone shifts along the way, comparable to the phenomenon of erhua in many Mandarin varieties.
Pre-Erhua Rime | Post-Erhua Rime | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wiktionary Extended Wugniu |
Wu-Chinese MiniDict |
IPA | Wiktionary Extended Wugniu |
Wu-Chinese MiniDict |
IPA |
y | /z̩/ | ynn | yn | /z̩̃/ | |
y | /z̩/[note 1] | ||||
i | /i/ | inn | in | /ĩ/ | |
i | /i/[note 1] | ||||
u | /u/ | unn | un | /ũ/ | |
u | /u/[note 1] | ||||
iu | /y/ | iunn | iun | /ỹ/ | |
iu | /y/[note 1] | ||||
ieu | /iu/ | ieunn | ieun | /iũ/ | |
ieu | /iu/[note 1] | ||||
a | /ɑ/ | an | aen | /ã/ | |
ua | /uɑ/ | uan | uaen | /uã/ | |
iua | /yɑ/ | iuan | iuaen | /yã/ | |
oea | yea | /ɤa/ | oen | yaen | /ɤã/ |
iaa | iea | /ia/ | ian | iaen | /iã/ |
oe | /ɤ/ | oenn | oen | /ɤ̃/ | |
ie | /ie/ | ienn~in | ien~ieng | /iẽ~iŋ/[note 2] | |
inn | in | /ĩ/[note 1] | |||
uo | uoe | /ɤ/ | oenn | oen | /ɤ̃/ |
enn | en | /ẽ/[note 2] | |||
d | |||||
uenn | uen | /uẽ/[note 2] | |||
|
Rime Correspondence (International Phonetic Alphabet) | Rime Correspondence (Wiktionary Extended Wugniu) | Rime Correspondence (Wu-Chinese Minidict) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-Change IPA | Post-Change IPA | Pre-Change Wugniu | Post-Change Wugniu | Pre-Change Minidict | Post-Change Minidict |
/z̩/[note 1] | /z̩̃/ | y | ynn | y | yn |
/z̩/ | y | y | |||
/i/[note 1] | /ĩ/ | i | inn | i | in |
/i/ | i | i | |||
/u/[note 1] | /ũ/ | u | unn | u | un |
/u/ | u | u | |||
/y/[note 1] | /ỹ/ | iu | iunn | iu | iun |
/y/ | iu | iu | |||
/iu/[note 1] | /iũ/ | ieu | ieunn | ieu | ieun |
/iu/ | ieu | ieu | |||
/ɑ/ | /ã/ | a | an | a | aen |
/uɑ/ | /uã/ | ua | uan | ua | uaen |
/ɤɑ/ | /ɤã/ | oea | oen | yae | yaen |
/ia/ | /iã/ | iaa | ian | iea | iaen |
/ɤ/ | /ɤ̃/ | oe | oenn | oe | oen |
/e/ | /ẽ/[note 2] | e | enn | e | en |
/əŋ/[note 2] | en | eng | |||
/ie/ | /iẽ/[note 2] | ie | ienn | ie | ien |
/iŋ/[note 2] | in | ing | |||
/ĩ/ | inn | in | |||
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《吳語婺州方言研究》(A Study on the Wuzhou Wu Dialect) 曹志耘 著