The Proto-Amerind reconstructions below are from Greenberg & Ruhlen (2007).[1]
The reconstructions are provided for historical reference, since Amerind is generally not considered to be a valid macrofamily by most linguists.
| English gloss | Proto-Amerind |
|---|---|
| above | *itai; *apa-k; *araka; *q’aɬ; *pin |
| adjectival/participial formant | *ki |
| agave | *mal |
| agentive | *-re ~ *-ri; *ta |
| agouti | *kuri |
| all | *q’ac |
| allative | *-k |
| along(side) | *no |
| already | *na |
| angry | *ili |
| ant | *tai; *cakon; *pic’u; *kaci; *tapu; *bohu |
| anteater | *bìgo |
| anus | *kuti |
| appear | *laq’w |
| arm | *poq; *kwana; *noq’ ~ *neq’; *kwala |
| armadillo | *pema |
| arrive | *wila |
| arrow | *m˜a |
| ashes | *pok ~ *pul |
| ask | *maca; *tempa |
| aunt | *pan |
| axe | *supa |
| back | *iki; *mak; *puna |
| bad | *kalen; *čaka; *q’ac |
| bark (v.) | *wok |
| bathe | *puk |
| be | *upi; *(a)t’a; *ʔi; *ka |
| bear (v.) | *ʔa |
| beard | *p’oti; *tuk |
| bee | *pana; *mumu |
| behind | *(a)pi; *ini |
| belly | *kate; *pali ~ *pani; *mat; *to; *si |
| bend/knee/elbow/bow (n.) | *poq’-os ~ *c’e-puq’ |
| big | *pala |
| bird | *c’ik(c’ik) ~ *c’uk(c’uk); *p’išk’u |
| bite | *kua; *tak |
| bitter | *pe(s)q’ ~ *p’o(s)q’; *cah; *kai |
| black | *pol; *k’ara; *t’uki; *teteu; *tuni ~ *tuli |
| blood | *pile; *menu; *ʔita; *pe; *kwa |
| blow (v.) | *puci ~ *puku |
| blue/green | *sikwa |
| body | *p’i; *ime |
| body part suffix | -an |
| boil (v.) | *tloqw |
| bone | *pak; *t’ui; *cak; *p’i; *χaq; *ʔunku |
| bow/arrow | *ɬoq’w |
| break (v.) | *k’at’i |
| breast | *k’amin; *niono; *pin; *tu |
| breathe | *hiqw |
| bring | *tuk |
| broad | *patl’ |
| burn | *t’eq’a ~ *t’oq’a; *pek’ ~ *pok’; *ka ~ *ko; *moɬok |
| butterfly | *palpal; *penpen; *sape ~ *sapipe ~ *sasipe; *liklik |
| buy | *teu |
| buzzard | *hus ~ *huš ~ *ʔus ~ *ʔuš; *wačuli ~ *wayuri |
| call | *wanik; *pai |
| capybara | *keču |
| carry | *apa; *ko(n); *nek |
| causative | *-(a)t(u); *ma; *cV ~ *Vc |
| cedar | *caq’u |
| cheek | *pok |
| chest | *t’ik ~ *t’uk |
| chew | *qac |
| chicken | *cik |
| child | *(a)nu; *mako; *pan; *ʔali; *tluk; *pam; *man; *k’ati |
| chin | *yuh |
| chipmunk | *wasila |
| chop | *qak |
| close (v.) | *q’apa; *kui; *pan |
| cloud | *tal(u); *pa(n)k; *pot |
| clover | *pot |
| cold | *canik; *t’ak’; *kaca; *to; *kui; *cia |
| come | *nani; *ta; *tak; *hau; *pi |
| cook | *maki; *q’waɬ ~ *q’wal; *koko |
| copulate | *huca |
| corn | *cikcik |
| count | *oši |
| cover (v.) | *tek’u; *sape |
| crow/raven | *q’aq’(aq) |
| cry (v.) | *wuni; *ʔipu |
| cut | *q’wat; *cikw; *t’an; *q’ec ~ *q’ac; *t’ek |
| dance | *taluk |
| dark | *t’umak |
| day | *q’wai |
| deer | *sula; *taʔ; *mana |
| desiderative | *-he |
| die | *maki; *tumpa; *t’iq’; *kam; *yak; *nek; *wanu |
| dig | *(o)kua; *tik; *(w)ali |
| diminutive | *-ihsa; *-mai |
| dirty | *c’i |
| do | *ʔaχ |
| dog | *(a)kuan; *kucu; *c’iʔ ~ *c’uʔ; *ari; *dia; *nuq; *puku; *waš |
| dove | *kowi |
| dry | *ana; *caqi |
| dual | *si |
| duck | *q’atq’at |
| durative | *la |
| durative/punctual | *-a/*-i |
| dust | *pur; *pe |
| dwell | *ʔu |
| eagle | *ʔasa |
| ear | *kamon; *kana; *pa(n); *naka; *tine; *tiki; *ali; *isa; *mal; *ka |
| earth | *ila; *tampi; *ama(k) ~ *ama(t); *nan(u); *pata; *kake; *pile |
| eat | *pa ~ *pe; *k’uli ~ *k’uri; *(h)ama; *k’ama |
| egg | *na; *tompa; *paki; *c’ikw |
| elbow | *q’ucu; *kuk |
| elder | *ʔa; *-ko |
| excrement | *pa; *(i)ta(h) |
| eye | *(i)to(ʔ); *tene ~ *tele; *k’an; *tuki ~ *tuku; *q’waɬ; *kap; *kad; *asa ~ *aša; *ere; *nak; *hin; *yan; *oi |
| fall | *tik |
| fan | *helu |
| far | *pali; *ya |
| fat | *kui; *wila |
| fear | *kul; *pak |
| feather | *p’atl; *pi |
| female | *-win; *iš |
| fill (up) | *tumpa |
| finger | *tik; *k’o |
| fingernail | *cikil |
| finish | *hawyi |
| fire | *(ʔ)oti; *kuti ~ *kuči; *ma; *ʔisu; *ʔaha; *paye; *c’ik; *guka; *pet; *sila(k); *yak |
| fire/burn | *apali |
| fish | *kwama; *q’ac’; *(n)amakw; *waki; *ʔici; *k’al ~ *kal; *yapa |
| flat | *t’a |
| flea | *mak’in ~ *makin; *p’ak’i; *k’wit’ |
| flower | *tuktuk; *p’aq’ |
| fly (v.) | *ta; *yaka |
| fly (n.) | *k’ampa; *mulu ~ *puru |
| foot | *po ~ *pa ~ *pe; *asiʔ |
| forehead | *pe; *koa |
| four | *maka |
| fox | *ʔaw; *pura |
| frog | *kwaq’at; *busi; *t’en; *wara; *buru; *xana |
| fruit | *teka |
| full | *pak; *pan ~ *p’ir; *t’am; *winik |
| future | *-ta |
| gather | *yokw |
| give | *cils; *yak; *ʔukw |
| go | *min ~ *man; *tem; *yak ~ *yaʔ; *q’oy; *ʔaka; *wan; *poro; *out caq |
| good | *ici; *c’ump(a); *malin; *k’anik ~ *k’ulik; *poy; *ʔayu; *tač’a; *k’apa; *meca; *keme; *q’waʔ |
| goose | *laq’laq’ |
| gourd | *puru |
| grandfather | *pica; *ikan |
| grass | *pu; *qaca |
| grease (n.) | *ʔisa |
| green | *kuli ~ *kuri |
| guts | *epoku; *kul |
| hair | *cum; *toni |
| hair/feather | *ali |
| hammock | *buh |
| hand | *ʔani; *atu; *(w-)ʔiš ~ *(w-)ʔasi; *kuc ~ *kic; *tana ~ *teni; *pito; *saka; *q’ap ~ *qap; *ʔaqa; *tap; *hento; *m’apa; *pel |
| hand/give/measure | *ma-n ~ *ma-k ~ *ma-r |
| hard | *kwele |
| hate | *pul |
| hawk | *sokal |
| hawk (sparrow) | *liq’liq’ |
| he/she | *ʔi ~ *iʔ; *ti ~ *ta |
| head | *puta; *t’aq; *sako |
| heart | *cuk’u |
| heron | *wara |
| heaven | *ema |
| hill | *ton |
| hit | *tiq’w; *tok; *pak; *maq’a |
| hole | *c’imak; *mu; *tolo |
| horn | *kwan |
| hortative | *pa ~ *pe ~ *pi |
| hot | *k’ec ~ *k’ac |
| house | *toh; *ka |
| husband | *ino |
| I | *na(ʔ); *ʔi; *pi ~ *pa; *ka ~ *ki; *ta; *ma |
| imperative | *ʔi |
| ...-in-law | *-kwa |
| interrogative | *ta; *ki ~ *ka ~ *ku; *min ~ *men ~ *man; *xa; *na; *pi; *wa; *sin |
| iterative | *-te |
| jaguar | *huko; *yak |
| kill | *pa ~ *pi |
| knee | *kati; *moko |
| knife | *pika |
| know | *kom; *yok; *kwak; *ma(k) ~ *ma(n); *naka; *rik; *t’akw |
| large | *ta(k); *mek’at’i; *po; *mo…n |
| laugh | *kal(i); *ʔaci |
| lazy | *hilak |
| leaf | *ere; *pane; *imi |
| left (hand) | *q(w)ec’ |
| leg | *ta(k); *caka |
| lick | *laq’w |
| lie down | *yaqw |
| lightning | *wilep’ |
| lip | *yepi |
| live (v.) | *ha(n); *ya |
| liver | *paci; *kala |
| lizard | *uli; *šiko |
| locative | *-(a)m(a); *-na- ~ *-ni; *pa ~ *pe ~ *pi |
| locative/instrumental | *-te ~ *-ta ~ *-ti |
| long | *ali; *kule |
| lose | *wono |
| louse | *ti; *tina; *ik’wa |
| lungs | *pos; *huhu |
| macaw | *maha |
| make | *taʔ; *yu; *kua |
| man | *ači; *kak; *ipa; *tama; *loko; *koto; *mano |
| many | *ali; *til ~ *tan; *moni; *pu; *pote ~ *peti; *lok’ |
| masculine/feminine | *t/*s |
| masculine/feminine/neutral | *i/*u/*a |
| meat | *lau; *nena; *mati; *ati; *wak’i; *tin; *nak |
| medicine | *t’oyo |
| moon | *p’ot; *tamp; *nunta; *q’ala |
| monkey | *kuki; *cawi |
| morning | *qaya |
| mosquito | *puro; *č’oyu |
| mother | *tati |
| mother/aunt | *nana |
| mother/older female relative | *aya |
| mountain | *way |
| mouse | *kus; *maqa; *p’osa; *c’ok; *pik |
| mouth | *yaq’; *kua; *kala; *čik |
| name (v.) | *dlaq; *ya |
| narrow | *cian |
| navel | *tompa |
| near | *kama |
| neck | *k’u; *aru; *gwaka; *pak |
| negative | *kua |
| new | *at’e; *c’um; *peɬa |
| night | *yama; *mok; *pasi ~ *sepi; *kači |
| nominal suffix | *-na |
| nose | *nus ~ *nis; *asi; *ɬin; *sunik ~ *sinik; *yak |
| now | *ere; *ne |
| old | *ano; *kayo |
| older female | *wis |
| one | *(ne-)k’we(t); *tama; *kela ~ *kana; *sem; *saka; *pa; *as; *če˜ne; *hu; *man; *owin |
| open | *k’une; *pai |
| otter | *keta |
| owl | *tuku(l); *pulpul |
| pain | *(n)ana |
| parrot | *cece; *kara ~ *keri; *kaka; *tuwi |
| past | *-na; *-ite; *-k |
| peel | *tl’uq’w; *pas |
| penis | *ko |
| people | *ʔoni |
| person | *kaya; *mikw; *win |
| pitch (resin) | *salak ~ *sakal |
| plant | *qaywa |
| play (v.) | *loʔu |
| plural | *ina ~ *ana; *ma ~ *me; *aki; *le |
| potato | *qaw; *kali |
| present/continuative | *-is |
| present/durative | *-i |
| quail | *takaka |
| rat | *kaba |
| raw | *čaw |
| reciprocal | *-ki ~ *-ka |
| red | *misk |
| reed | *ʔakta |
| reflexive | *ti |
| rib | *q’aci; *ca |
| right | *pet |
| river | *pala; *tia |
| road | *nama; *p’en; *niyani |
| rock | *ʔo; *tem |
| root | *pal; *tap |
| rope | *c’ak; *tit |
| rotton | *pet’o |
| rough | *č’aksi |
| round | *k’ir; *molok |
| rub | *yul |
| run | *kano; *taka |
| saliva | *tupa; *tokw; *ole |
| salmon | *c’wan |
| salt | *k’ači; *si; *tam |
| sand | *yeʔwa |
| say | *ti; *qwaɬ; *koʔe; *ʔai; *ʔona; *nik |
| scratch | *χwala; *c’iχ |
| see | *new; *win; *pi; *ma ~ *mi ~ *mu; *ʔica; *ʔuka; *ila; *wat |
| seed | *mak; *icu |
| seek | *peno |
| sew | *pik; *k’wači |
| shadow | *mani |
| she | *i-gau |
| shell (v.) | *ʔiksu |
| shine | *lemp |
| shoot | *t’uya |
| shoulder | *tala; *peko |
| sibling | *kani |
| side | *čan |
| sing | *siya |
| sit | *ču; *ni; *ʔuwa; *t’aq; *iku |
| skin | *toke; *pakti; *čom; *k’wati; *pai; *pici; *pol |
| skunk | *šika |
| sky | *hewlak; *ʔapal |
| slap | *tlaq; *lapa |
| sleep | *cima; *ʔitaw ~ *it’aw; *ʔino; *kanak; *ka ~ *k’o |
| small | *t’uk ~ *tik; *kunek; *k’uti |
| smell | *matik’; *k’ukwi |
| smoke | *c’eka |
| snake | *kan; *tampa; *aq’wi; *kamuc; *nato; *pan; *iyala; *mete; *wek; *olaba; *oro; *pusu; *k’aʔ; *yupi |
| sneeze | *ʔasu-ka |
| snot | *caʔm |
| snow | *yu; *pon |
| sociative | *mane |
| son/child/daughter | *t’ina/*t’ana/*t’una |
| sour | *caqw |
| speak | *weh |
| spider | *ʔako; *madi; *q’al |
| spring (season) | *t’ica; *tem |
| spruce | *c’im |
| squash (n.) | *q’ame |
| squeeze | *pic’ ~ *p’ic |
| stab | *c’aqw |
| stand | *tep; *nuka; *up taʔ |
| star | *(a)sin; *meca |
| stay (in a place) | *man |
| steal | *mera; *k’wawa |
| stick (in) | *ɬaqw |
| stomach | *to; *wak |
| stone | *k’atla; *cak; *tak; *got; *k’wak’w; *mak; *pake |
| string | *nu |
| strong | *pale |
| suck | *c’uqw |
| sun | *ali ~ *ala; *kwal; *pali; *t’ak’w; *c’ul; *kati; *hasi; *maka; *pan; *p’it ~ *put’; *hini; *kamo; *tin; *hada; *haya; *pe; *naqw; *pak |
| swallow (v.) | *maliq’a |
| sweep | *pit |
| swell | *pos |
| tail | *k’wati; *tuk; *baɬ; *ʔala; *sin; *sikal |
| talk | *mal |
| tapir | *maci; *awa; *kutu; *kema; *nake |
| testicle | *talo |
| that | *mo; *pa; *ya; *ʔa ~ *ha; *sa |
| there | *ʔai |
| thick | *q’wic |
| thigh | *kasi |
| think | *ali |
| this | *ki ~ *ko; *ni ~ *na; *wi; *fei; *ga |
| thorn | *k’ica ~ *kasi |
| thou | *mi ~ *ma; *a; *ka; *ti; *hi; *pi ~ *pa ~ *wa |
| thread (v.) | *kuyo |
| three | *(ne-)qwaɬas; *sapin |
| throat | *nuk’ |
| throw | *aka; *t’amp ~ *tamp |
| tie (v.) | *tak’ |
| tobacco | *hici |
| tongue | *kapi; *nene; *paɬ; *lat; *tukw; *nem |
| tooth | *it’io; *nan; *kan; *kita; *ʔik; *yok’ |
| toucan | *cuk |
| tree | *man ~ *min; *qan ~ *qal; *temba; *hapa; *neki; *ʔaxa; *hama; *ɬok’ ~ *ɬoq’; *kul |
| tree (oak) | *teq’ ~ *taq’; *k’win |
| tremble | *tukw |
| turkey | *kutu |
| turn | *maya |
| turtle | *hola; *kuli |
| two | *(ne-)pale; *ʔaku; *wi ~ *wa; *tuk; *pit; *mok; *men; *kom; *pok; *sak; *take; *tap; *yama |
| uncle | *kaka |
| uncle (maternal) | *taq; *nakwe |
| uncle (paternal) | *maq |
| up | *yaq; *k’ìs |
| urine | *seki; *wisi |
| vagina | *put; *ʔaci |
| vulva | *naq’w; *ʔene |
| walk | *hiwet |
| want | *k’un |
| warm | *yo; *cuqal |
| wash | *c’ik’wa; *huka |
| water/drink | *aq’wa/*uq’wa |
| water | *man; *poi; *re; *si; *kwati; *p’ak; *na; *ʔali; *pan; *tuna; *c’i; *kam ~ *kom; *to ~ *do; *kona; *xi; *hobi |
| we inclusive | *ʔis ~ *seʔ; *ma |
| we-two inclusive | *ki ~ *ka |
| west | *bo |
| white | *pala; *pek; *tora; *posa |
| wide | *ʔaɬaq |
| wildcat | *tunku |
| win | *tl’akw |
| wind (n.) | *kiq; *kwala; *ʔitewa; *ʔaši; *suk’w |
| wing | *kampi |
| winter | *tete |
| wish (v.) | *mena; *yana |
| with | *ma |
| wolf | *tepa |
| woman | *tom; *kuna; *sun; *ita |
| wood | *iye; *ake |
| woodpecker | *bak |
| work (v.) | *pi; *nina |
| worm | *kwec; *nokin; *piru |
| year | *ʔame; *wata |
| yellow | *tampa; *ci |
| yes | *ʔehe |
| yesterday | *kan; *weɬ |
| younger brother/older brother | *p’oy/*p’oyp’oy |