Proto-Totozoquean reconstructions:[1]
| No. | Gloss (Proto-Totozoquean) | Proto-Totozoquean | Proto-Totonacan | Proto-Mixe-Zoquean | Proto-Mixe | Proto-Zoque | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *akə | *aqa- ‘ear, the part of something that sticks out’ | *ʔak(ə) ‘bark, skin’ | POM *taː¢k ʔak ‘exterior part of ear’. | |||
| 2 | *čA | *čáːˈ{muːn} ‘tumpline’ (derived from *čaˈx ‘rope’ + *muːn ‘forehead’) | *¢a{y} ‘fiber rope’ | ||||
| 3 | fly (n.) | *čAːč | *čáːˈk{aɬ} ‘type of fly’ | *¢aː¢{i} | *¢a¢i ‘flyN’ | PM *¢aː¢i is expected. | |
| 4 | ripen | *čaːm | *čaː ‘ripen’ | *¢aːmʔ ‘ripen’ | |||
| 5 | hail; stone | *čahʔ | *ča{xíːt} ‘hail’ | *¢aːʔ ‘stone’ | |||
| 6 | tie | *čEː | *čiːˈ ‘tie, tie up’ | *¢e{n} | PGZ *¢en ‘tie’ | ||
| 7 | wash | *čEq ~ *čAq | *čaˈq{áːˈ} ‘wash’ | *¢eʔ | *¢eʔ ‘wash’ | ||
| 8 | wring out, grind | *čEʔt | *čiˈt- ‘wring out, grind’ | *¢eʔt | POM *¢eʔt ~ *¢eʔet ‘squash, crush’ | ||
| 9 | *čiːn | *číːn{aˈ} ‘pus’ | *¢iːn{u} ‘honey’ | ||||
| 10 | tear, break | *čih | *či{qí} ‘tear, break’ | *¢ih | *¢ih ‘break’ | ||
| 11 | spit | *čuh | *čuh- ‘spit’ | *¢uh ‘spit’ | PTn *ču- is expected. | ||
| 12 | move | *čuku | *{(aˈq)}cuqú ‘move around; take a walk’ (aˈq- ‘head’) | *¢uku{t} | *¢ukut ‘move (arm, leg)’ | Sayula Popoluca ¢ugut ‘move’. | |
| 13 | grab, grasp | *čƏ ~ *čƗ | *čiˈ{pá} ~ *čaˈ{pá} ‘grab, grasp’ | *¢ə{k} | *¢ək ‘grasp’ | ||
| 14 | yes | *hɨːq | *hiːqi ‘yes’ | *həːʔ ‘yes’ | |||
| 15 | acrid of rotten smell | *Hakʸ | *Hak ‘acrid or rotten smell’ | *hak | *hak(a) ‘bad smelling’ | ||
| 16 | grind (corn) | *Haʔ | *Ha{láˈ} ‘grind (corn)’ | *haʔ{p} | *haʔp ‘grind’ | Texistepec Popoluca haːʔp ‘grind on a metate’. | |
| 17 | embers; coal | *Haʔl ~ *Huʔl | *Hal{áˈn} ‘embers’ | *huʔy{i} ‘coal’ | |||
| 18 | fire; to smoke | *Hikʸʔ ~ *Hukʸʔ | *Hik- ‘fire’ | *hukʔ ‘to smoke’ | |||
| 19 | drown | *Hiʔkʸs | *Hiks{wáˈ} ‘drown’ | *hiʔkš | *hiʔks ‘drown’ | ||
| 20 | place of | *kʸAːh | *kaːˈ- ‘place of ’ | *kah + *pən, literally, ‘place’ + ‘people’ | POM *kahpVn ‘village, town’ | ||
| 21 | sour, bitter | *kʸa | *ka{x} ‘sour, bitter’ | *ka{¢u(¢)} ‘sour, bitter’ | |||
| 22 | left | *kʸIːʔ | *-kiːˈ ‘lift’ | *kiʔ{m} | *kiʔm ‘ascend’ | ||
| 23 | nose | *kʸin | *kin- ‘nose’ | *kin{ə} | *kinə ‘nose, point, peak’ | ||
| 24 | corn (kernels) | *kʸIs (cf. *kʸusi·) | *kíˈs{paˈ} ‘corn (kernels)’ | *{ʔə}ks{-i} ‘corn nibs (dry)’ | The PMZ form could occur in either of two cognate sets, meaning that only one of the two sets is valid. | ||
| 25 | fixed, prepared | *kʸəːš | *ka ːš ‘fixed, prepared’ | *kəːs | kəš ‘to finish’ | PM *kəːhš is expected. | |
| 26 | savory, delicious | *kʸən | *kan- ‘savory, delicious’ | *kən | PGZ *kəːn ‘savory’ | Long vowel is a secondary development in GZ languages. | |
| 27 | tree, wood, firewood | *kʸƗCI | *kíˈwiˈ ‘tree, wood, firewood, stick’ | *kəpi ‘tree, firewood’ | C in the PTz reconstruction stands for some bilabial segment. | ||
| 28 | grind | *kʸIhʔt | *kit{í} ‘grind on metate’ | *kəːʔt ‘grind pinole’ | |||
| 29 | corn kernels, nibs (dry) | *kʸušI (cf. *kʸi·s) | *kúšiˈ ‘corn (maize), corn kernels’ | *{ʔə}ks-i ‘corn nibs (dry)’ | The PMZ form could occur in either of two cognate sets, meaning that only one of the two sets is valid. | ||
| 30 | amaranth, edible greens | *kʸwAhkʸw | *káˈk{a} ‘amaranth, edible greens’ | *waːw | waːw ‘edible piper’ | ||
| 31 | mouth | *kʸwehʔɬ | *kiɬ- ‘mouth’ | *weːʔy | POM *weːʔy ‘to lick’ | ||
| 32 | *kʸwiː | *kiː- ‘go and return’ | *wi{tuʔ} | *wituʔ ‘to return’ | |||
| 33 | *kAː | *qáːˈ{tiː} ‘plant with hollow stem’ | *ka{pe} ‘type of bamboo’ | ||||
| 34 | tongue | *kAːt | *{siːˈmaˈ}qáːˈt ‘tongue’ | *kaːt | *kat ‘lick’ | ||
| 35 | bite, chew | *kA | *{¢aˈ}qáˈ ‘bite; chew’ | *ka{y} | *kay ‘eat tortillas’ | ||
| 36 | lime (calcium hydroxide) | *kaš | *qáš{tah} ‘lime (calcium hydroxide)’ | *ʔakaš | *{ʔa}kaš ‘lime (calcium hydroxide)’ | ||
| 37 | opened (bottle, pot), uncovered | *kEːh | *-qiːˈ ‘opened (bottle, pot), uncovered’ | *keh | *keh ‘untie’ | ||
| 38 | *keʔnkš ~ *kOʔnkš or *kUʔnkš | *quˈnqš- ‘braidV’ | *keʔks | *keʔkš ‘braidV’ | |||
| 39 | knee | *kos | *{¢u}qus- ‘knee’ | *kos{o(k)} ‘knee’ | |||
| 40 | drink, swallow | *kUʔt | *quˈt- ‘drink, swallow’ | *kuʔt | *kuʔt ‘eat something soft’ | ||
| 41 | *kƆš | *qaˈš{í} ‘strike with hand’ | *kos ‘hit with fist’ | ||||
| 42 | *loːʔk | *lúːq{uˈ} ~ *lúːˈq{uˈ} ‘throat, swallowV, egret or heron (long-necked bird)’ | *yoʔk{(-tu)} ‘neck’ | PMZ *yoːʔk(-tu) would be expected given the PTz form; North Highland Mixe yoʔkt ‘neck, throat, scruff of the neck’. | |||
| 43 | *lƏʔ | *{š}laˈ ‘he, she, it’ (= *išə- ‘3po’ + *laˈ ) | *yəʔ ‘(demonstrative pronoun) this’ | San José Paraíso yəʔə ‘he, she, it, him, her–specific’. | |||
| 44 | to shake, vibrate | *lɨʔkʸ | *lik{š}- ‘to shake, vibrate’ | *yəʔk | *yəʔk ‘shake’ | ||
| 45 | *nʸema | *lamá ‘flameV, burn’ | *nema | *nema ‘flame’ | |||
| 46 | *nʸUʔš | *lúˈš{uˈ} ‘cloth, clothes’ | *nuʔs ‘to cover’ | PZ *nuʔs-kuy ‘blanket, jacket, sarape’. | |||
| 47 | *ɬkʸəːʔ | *ɬkaː ‘measureV’ | *kəʔ ‘hand, arm’ | Texistepec Popoluca kəʔ ‘...hand (measure of five)’. | |||
| 48 | braid (v.) | *ɬkuʔt | *ɬqut- ‘braidV’ | *kuʔt | POM *kuʔt ~ *kuʔut ‘braidV’ | ||
| 49 | *ɬtƆl | *ɬtaˈl{á} ‘red hot, burning’ | *toy ‘to burn, to hurt’ | ||||
| 50 | *ƛahʔnkʸ ~ *ƛehʔnkʸ | *ƛank- ‘big, more’ | *yeːʔk ‘to grow’ | ||||
| 51 | *ƛɔx | *ƛax ‘earn, win’ | *yoh ‘owe, pay’ | PTn *ƛa is expected. | |||
| 52 | *mAːhʔ | *maːˈ ‘be lying down’ | *maːhʔ ‘sleepV’ | ||||
| 53 | buy; sell | *maːʔ | *{ta}maː{wá} ‘buy’ | *maʔ{ay} ‘sell’ | |||
| 54 | old, ancient | *mah | *ma{qáːn} ‘old, ancient’ | *mah | *mah-Vt ‘old (living being)’ | POM *mah haʔy ‘old (man, animal)’. | |
| 55 | hear | *mat | *{qaš}mát- ‘hear’ | *mat{ow} ‘hear’ | |||
| 56 | salt | *ma¢ | *ma¢{át} ‘salt’ | *{taː}ma¢ | *taːma¢ ‘salty’ | ||
| 57 | come | *min | *min ‘come’ | *min ‘come’ | |||
| 58 | to know | *mis ~ *mus | *mis{páː} ‘to know’ | *mus | *mus ‘know’ | ||
| 59 | make wet; to soak | *mUh (cf. *mu·ʔ) | *muˈ{núː} ‘make wet’ | *muh ‘to soak’ | |||
| 60 | spring (water) | *mUʔ (cf. *mu·h) | *múˈ{sniˈ} ‘spring (water)’ | *muʔ{t} ‘spring (water)’ | |||
| 61 | *məhʔkʸ | *mak{a-} ‘hand’ | *məːʔk{s} ‘wring out’ | PM *məːʔkš-i(k) ‘fist’, and Texistepec Popoluca bəʔks ‘squeeze (with the hand)’. | |||
| 62 | bamboo | *mƏƛ | *maˈƛ- ‘bamboo’ | *məy | *məhy ‘long grass’ | ||
| 63 | sweet potato | *mƏn | *maˈn{táh} ‘sweet potato’ | *mən{(i)} ‘sweet potato’ | |||
| 64 | (covered in) dew | *mənkʔ ~ *monkʔ or *munkʔ | *munq{áː} ‘covered in dew’ | *məkʔ ‘dew’ | |||
| 65 | much, many | *mwA | *{lú}waˈ ‘much, many’ | *ma{y} ‘much’ | |||
| 66 | tamale | *mwƏː | *waːˈ{t} ‘tamale’ | *mə{ʔk} | *məʔk-i ‘tamale’ | ||
| 67 | you SG | *mwiš | *wiš ‘you SG’ | *mis | POM *miš ‘(pronoun) you (masculine vocative), boy (vocative)’ | ||
| 68 | beat | *nak | *naq- ~ *nik- ‘beat, hit’ | *nak{s} ‘to whip, beat’ | |||
| 69 | negation | *niː | *niː ‘negation’ | *ni ti ‘(particle) nothing’ | PM *ni ‘(particle) negation’. | ||
| 70 | aunt | *nkʸwapah | *nápa ‘aunt’ | *wapah | *ʔapah ‘mother’ | PMZ stem-initial *w was dropped to dissimilate from -p- in the PZ reflex. In Wichmann (1995), there are no PZ forms that reconstruct *wVp. However, such forms do reconstruct for Mixean proto-languages, such as the following from Wichmann (1995)ː PM *wip, *wips, *wop, and POM *wəːʔps. | |
| 71 | squash | *nkʸwip | *níp{šiˈ} ‘squash’ | *wip | POM *wip ‘chayote vine’ | Chayote is a squash-like fruit. | |
| 72 | water | *nəhnq | *nanq ‘having to do with water’ | *nəːʔ ‘water’ | |||
| 73 | jug | *oːʔl | *{uy}úːl ‘jug’ | *{ʔ}oːʔy | POM *ʔoːʔy ‘jug’ | ||
| 74 | boil (v.) | *ohʔp | *pupú ‘boilV’ | Possibly from onomatopoeic PTn *up + *up + *up]; PM *ʔoːʔp ‘to foam’ . 362 international journal of american linguistics | |||
| 75 | Brown Jay | *paːk | *páːq{aˈ} ‘Brown Jay’ | *paːk | POM *pak ‘dove’ | POM *paːhk is expected. | |
| 76 | *pak | *paq{a-} ‘arm, wing, branch’ | *pak ‘bone’ | ||||
| 77 | break (tr.) | *pAk | *paˈq- ‘breakTR’ | *pak | *pak ‘to hit, to knock down’ | PZ *pak is from Kaufman (2007). | |
| 78 | *pikʸš | *pikš- ‘itchV’ | *piks ‘to tap, pick at’ | ||||
| 79 | *pIn | *piˈn- ‘red’; *piˈn ‘chili pepper’ | *{nəʔ}pin ‘blood’ | Probably derived from PMZ *nəʔ ‘water’ + *pin ‘red’. | |||
| 80 | *pInkʸw | *piˈnk{s}- ‘pinch’ | *piw ‘to pick up’ | Coatlán piːw ~ piw ‘pick up (with fingers, e.g., corn kernels)’. | |||
| 81 | tremble, shake | *pip ~ *pup | *pip{í} ‘tremble, shake’ | *pup | *pup ‘shake’ | ||
| 82 | tuber | *pisiː | *pisíː{s} ‘Elephant Ears (plant with edible tuber)’ | *pisi ‘Manihot spp.’ | Apapantilla Totonac pisisi ‘cassava, yucca’ (Manihot spp.). | ||
| 83 | mud | *poːʔƛ | *puːƛ ‘mud’ | *poːʔy{o} | *poʔyo ‘sand’ | Some reflexes mean ‘fine dirt’. | |
| 84 | gourd | *pok | *puq ‘gourd’ | *pok{(ok)} ‘gourd’ | |||
| 85 | bubble, bubbly, foamy | *ponkw | *punq{ú} ‘bubble, bubbly, foamy’ | *pow | *poh ‘to steam’ | The PZ form is a correction of PZ *pow, a typographical error in Wichmann (1995). | |
| 86 | *pOtʸ | *puˈc{a} ‘tear, break, snap (something long and thin)’ | *pot | *poht ‘tear something long and thin’ | PM form is revised by Wichmann for this paper (cf. Wichmann 1995ː436). | ||
| 87 | drizzle (v.) | *puːš | *puːš{úː} ‘drizzleV’ | *puːs | POM *puːšypy ‘vapor’ | Some reflexes mean ‘steam after a rain’. | |
| 88 | rot (v.) | *puːčʔ | *puːč{íːˈ} ‘rotV’ | *puː¢ʔ ‘rot’ | |||
| 89 | *pUq | *puˈq{uˈ} ‘belly, stomach’ | *puʔ{pu} ‘intestines’ | Oluta Popoluca puʔpu ‘belly’. | |||
| 90 | dust | *pUqš | *puˈqš{(niˈ)} ‘dust’ | *puʔs{u(m)} | *puʔš{u(m)} ‘dust’ | ||
| 91 | twenty | *pUš | *puˈš{ám} ‘twenty’ | *{ʔiːʔ}ps ‘twenty’ | |||
| 92 | pick (fruit), tear off | *pUš | *puˈš ‘pick (fruit), tear off ’ | *pus | *puhš ‘cut with a machete’ | PM form is revised by Wichmann for this paper (cf. Wichmann 1995ː429). | |
| 93 | *pUʔkʸ | *púˈk- ‘smell rotten, stink’ | *puʔk{s} ‘to gain color, to ripen’ | Ayapa Zoque puʔks ‘rot’. | |||
| 94 | moon, month | *pɔ | *papáˈ ‘moon, month’ | *po{yʔa} ‘moon, month’ | |||
| 95 | white | *pɔhpʔɔʔ | *{sna}pápa ‘white’ (= *s- ‘diminutive’ + *napápa ‘white’) | *poːpʔoʔ ‘white’ | |||
| 96 | soft | *pɔn ~ *pɔm | *pam- ‘soft’ | *pon{on} | *ponon ‘soft’ | ||
| 97 | be born; sprout (v.) | *pɔq | *paq ‘be born; sproutV, flowerV’ | *poʔ | *poʔ ‘sproutV, be born’ | ||
| 98 | pinole | *pɔʔt | *{sqa}pat ‘corn ground into a powder and eaten with sugar (pinole)’ | *poʔt{e} | *poʔte ‘flour, corn ground into a fine powder and eaten with sugar (pinole)’ | ||
| 99 | person; man | *pən | *{laː}pán ‘person’ | *pən ‘man’ | |||
| 100 | burst, explode | *pənkw | *panq- ‘burst, explode’ | *pəw | *pəh ‘to burst’ | ||
| 101 | *pəš | *paš- ‘batheINTR’ | *pəs{-V(k)} ‘sweat’ | *pəs ‘sweat’ | Northern Chiapas Zoque pəs ‘sweat, put water on it’. | ||
| 102 | knead | *qOhʔt | *quˈt{á} ‘knead’ | *yoːʔt ‘knead’ | Possibly PTz *q > PMZ *y/#_ (no counter-evidence yet observed). | ||
| 103 | white | *sAhka | *saˈqá{qa} ‘white’ | *saːka ‘white’ | PMZ form reconstructed by Wichmann for this paper. The reconstruction is based on To winšaːhk ‘whitened pupil of the eye due to some injury’ (wiːhn ‘eye’), and Cp pokasaka ‘egg white’ (poka ‘egg’). | ||
| 104 | chicozapote (Manilkara zapota) | *sEːʔkn | *síːˈqn{aˈ} ‘chicozapote (?)’ (§ later ‘banana, plantain’) | *seʔn{ke} ~ *seʔn{ki} ‘chicozapote (Manilkara zapota)’ | Reconstruction by Wichmann for this paper. This reconstruction is based on Sayula Popoluca šeʔnk ‘chicozapote’, Guichicovi šeʔenky ‘chicozapote’, and Coatlán šeʔñ ‘chicozapote’. PMZ *seːʔnke ~ *seːʔnki is expected as a reflex of the PTz form. | ||
| 105 | having the odor of fish or metal | *skʸwoʔnkʸw | *skúnk{aˈ} ‘having the odor of fish or metal’ | *woʔw | PGZ *woʔh ‘fish’ | ||
| 106 | rabbit | *skʸɔ | *ska{w} ‘rabbit’ | *ko{ya} ‘rabbit’ | Huastec (Mayan) koy ‘rabbit’, a probable loan from an MZ language. | ||
| 107 | to suck | *skoʔl | *squlíˈ ‘suck; use mouth to make something whistle’ | *koʔy | *koʔy ‘to suck (inside the mouth)’ | ||
| 108 | plum | *skɔya | *sqatá{n} ‘plum’ | *koya | *koya ‘tomato’ | ||
| 109 | roll | *spIt | *spiˈt- ‘roll, spin; return’ | *pit ‘roll up’ | PM *wimpit ‘return’. | ||
| 110 | drip (v.) | *stAʔ | *staˈ{x-} ‘dripV, get wet’ | *taʔ{ks} | *taʔkš ‘to drip’ | ||
| 111 | sell | *stƆːʔkʸ | *staːˈ ‘sell’ | *toːʔk | *toːʔk ‘to sell’ | ||
| 112 | to perforate | *sU | *súˈ{kuˈ} ‘perforated’ | *su{t} ‘to perforate’ | |||
| 113 | blow | *sUːhʔ | *suːˈ{nú} ‘blow, blow on’ | *suːhʔ ‘blow’ | |||
| 114 | tie together | *swƗhʔt | *swiˈt- ‘tie together, tangle, wrap’ | *wəːʔt | *wəːʔt ‘to tie together (poles, cane)’ | ||
| 115 | *šiː | *šiː{ɬ} ‘mange, scabies’ | *si{k} | *niː-šihk ‘mangey, having scabies’ | PM form is revised by Wichmann for this paper (cf. Wichmann 1995ː440). | ||
| 116 | hog plum | *šiːpa | *šíːpa ‘Hog Plum’ | *saːpa{ne} | *sapane ‘marmalade fruit (mamey)’ | ||
| 117 | snot | *ši | *ši{l} ‘snot’ | *si{t} | *sit ‘snot’ | ||
| 118 | itch (v.) | *šIʔ | *šiˈ{n} ‘itchV’ | *siːʔ{p} | *šiʔp ~ *šiːp ‘cause an itch’ | ||
| 119 | tick | *škʸAp | *škáˈp{aˈ} ‘tick’ | *kap{i} | *kapi(C) ‘scorpion’ | Both creatures are arachnids. | |
| 120 | coatimundi | *škʸuʔy | *škút{iˈ} ‘coatimundi’ | *kuʔy | POM *kuʔuy ‘large, red squirrel’ | Coatimundis and squirrels have a superficial resemblance, including long, furry, looping tails. | |
| 121 | louse | *skʸwaːt | *skáːt{aˈ} ‘louse’ | *{ʔa}wat ‘louse’ | |||
| 122 | bite, hurt | *škʸwa | *ška ‘bite; hurt’ | *wa{s} | *was ‘chew’ | Chimalapa Zoque was ‘chew, bite’ and Ayapa Zoque was ‘bite, to hurt’. | |
| 123 | *škaː | *sqaː ‘harvest corn, shuck corn’ | *ka{ma} ‘cornfield’ | ||||
| 124 | *škEhkʔ | *sqiˈq{íˈn} ‘type of bird’ | *keːkʔ ‘to fly’ | PM *keːk-an ‘wing’. | |||
| 125 | *škuk | *squq ‘row (of plants), furrow’ | *kuk ‘middle’ | North Highland Mixe kuhk ‘vertical, straight’. | |||
| 126 | dew, dewdrops | *šləm | *šlám{uˈ} ‘dew, dewdrops’ | *yəm{əm} | *yəməm ‘to drizzle’ | ||
| 127 | wilt, dry out (plant, flower) | *šnihʔk | *šniq- ‘wilt, dry out (plant, flower)’ | *niːʔks | *niːʔk{š} ‘to fade, dry (flower)’ | ||
| 128 | snail, slug | *šokI | *šúqiˈ ‘snail, šlug’ | *soki | *soki ‘šnail’ | ||
| 129 | *štAhkʔ ~ *štIhkʔ | *štaˈq- ~ *štiˈq- ‘woven šleeping mat’ | *taːkʔ ‘to weave’ | ||||
| 130 | bean | *štapu | *štápu ‘bean’ | *tapu | *tapu ‘wart’ | ||
| 131 | *štuq- | *štuq- ‘gather togetherINTR, meet’ | *tuʔ{m} | *tuʔm ‘to gather’ | |||
| 132 | dam (water), dišturb | *štɔʔp | *štap{ú} ‘dam (water), dišturb’ | *toʔp | PGZ *toʔp ‘to hamper’ | Central Chiapas Zoque toʔp¢əʔy ‘to become obstructed or blocked’. | |
| 133 | bitter | *šUːn | *šúːˈn ‘bitter’ | *suːn | POM *šuhn ~ šun ‘to become sour’ | POM *šuːhn is expected. | |
| 134 | metate; to grind | *šwAː | *šwáːˈ{tiˈ} ‘metate’ | *wa{y} ‘to grind’ | Texistepec Popoluca way ‘grind (with metate)’. | ||
| 135 | open, having a cavity | *šwəʔnk | *šwanq- ‘open, having a cavity’ | *wəʔk | POM *ʔa-wəʔk ~ *ʔa-wəʔək ‘to open the mouth’ | *ʔah-wak ‘to open’ | |
| 136 | give | *šyak | *štaq ‘leave something, give’ | *yak ‘give’ | |||
| 137 | *taɬ | *táɬ{u} ‘rash, skin disease’ | *tay ‘to scar’ | ||||
| 138 | tear, split, rip | *tEːt | *tiːˈt- ‘tear, split, rip’ | *teːt | *tet ‘to split, tear’ | ||
| 139 | what? | *tiː | *tiː ‘what?, who?’ | *ti ‘what?’ | |||
| 140 | touch, feel, strike | *tik ~ *tuk or *tok | *tuq- ‘touch, feel, strike’ | *ti{kin} | *tikin ‘to touch’ | ||
| 141 | excrement | *tin | *{(ʔiɬ)}tín ‘excrement’; *{tan}tín ‘defecate’ (*tan- ‘anus’ + *tin ‘excrement’) | *tin ‘excrement’ | |||
| 142 | old woman | *tOqO | *túˈquˈ ‘old woman’ | *toʔo | POM *toʔošy-təhk ‘woman’ | ||
| 143 | spread (tr.) | *tOʔnk ~ *tOʔnkʸ | *tuˈnq- ‘spreadTR, stretchTR, extendTR’ | *toʔk ‘to spread out on the ground’ | |||
| 144 | *tUkʸ | *tuˈk ‘snap off, break off ’ | *tuk ‘pick fruit’ | ||||
| 145 | one | *tum | *tum ‘one’ | *tum ‘one’ | |||
| 146 | tooth | *təh¢ | *ta¢{a-} ‘tooth’ | *təː¢ ‘tooth’ | |||
| 147 | younger sibling | *tənkʸw | *stánk{uˈ} ‘younger sibling’ (= *s- ‘diminutive’ + *tánkuˈ) | *təw{ə} | *təwə ‘brother’ | ||
| 148 | straight | *tƏnkʸw | *taˈnk{s} ‘straight, correct’ | *təw ‘be upright, straight’ | POM *təwy ‘true’. | ||
| 149 | to dry | *tIː¢ʔ | *tiː ‘dry up’ | *təː¢ʔ ‘to dry out, become thin’ | |||
| 150 | rock (tr.) | *tIhʔ | *ti{wí} ‘rockTR, swingTR’ | *təːʔ{y} | *təːʔy ‘to rock’ | Sayula Popoluca təʔy ‘swing’. | |
| 151 | seed; fruit | *tƗm ~ *tƗn | *tiˈn ‘seed’ | *təm ‘fruit’ | |||
| 152 | *tIp | *tip- ‘shoot arrow’ | *təp ‘stab, shoot with arrow’ | ||||
| 153 | *tʸEhʔn | *čiˈn{táˈ} ‘kick’ | *teːʔn ‘to step on, to tread on, to trample, stand up’ | ||||
| 154 | speak | *tʸih | *či{wíː} ‘speak’ | *tih | POM *tih ‘say’ | ||
| 155 | vulture | *tʸUːʔn | *čuːˈn ‘vulture’ | *tuːʔn{uk} | *tuʔnuk ‘turkey’ | The superficial resemblance between vultures and wild turkeys is the likely basis for the common English name for Cathartes aura, Turkey Vulture. | |
| 156 | *tʸuk | *-cuq{ú} ‘stopped’ | *{ʔaw-}tuk ‘to close’ | Jaltepec ʔadúk ‘to stop’. | |||
| 157 | house | *tʸək (cf. *tʸIkʸ) | *čaq{aː-} ‘house’ | *tək ‘house’ | The PMZ form could occur in either of two cognate sets, meaning that only one of the two sets is valid if this is not otherwise explained by the alternation of k and q found in some Tn languages. | ||
| 158 | cut (tr.) | *tʸəʔkš | *čaqš- ‘cut off, cut down, snap off ’ | *təʔks | *təʔks ‘to break or cut’ | Northeastern Chiapas Zoque təʔks ‘cut with a machete, chop into chunks’. | |
| 159 | house | *tʸɨkʸ (cf. *tʸək) | *čik ‘house, home’ | *tək ‘house’ | |||
| 160 | amaranth, edible green | *¢amwA | *¢áwaˈ ‘amaranth’ | *¢ama{m} ‘a kind of edible green’ | North Highland Mixe ¢ámən ‘quintonil (Amaranthus hypocondricus)’ | ||
| 161 | black | *¢I | *¢iˈ ‘black’ | *¢i{s} | POM *¢iš-y ‘dark’ | POM *¢ihš ~ ¢iš ‘to become sooted’; Coatlán ¢išy ‘color black’; San José Paraíso ¢ihš ~ ¢iš ‘to blacken’. | |
| 162 | *¢I | *¢íˈ¢iˈ ‘infection, sore, canker’ | *¢í{pin} ‘wart’ | Perhaps, originally, literally ‘pimple red’ (see PTz *piˈn). | |||
| 163 | suckle | *¢Iʔč | *¢iˈk{íːˈ} ‘suckle’ | *¢iʔ¢ | *¢iʔ¢ ‘suckle’ | ||
| 164 | begin | *¢oʔč | *¢uk{ú} ‘begin’ | *¢oʔ¢ | *¢oʔ¢ ‘begin’ | ||
| 165 | rubber, elastic | *¢əkʸəː | *¢akáː{t} ‘rubber, elastic’ | *¢əkə{k} | *¢əkək ‘Gumbolimbo (Bursera spp.)’ | Upper Necaxa Totonac ¢akáːt ‘Gumtree’ | |
| 166 | mother | *¢Ɨː | *¢iːˈ ‘mother’ | *¢ə | *¢əʔ ‘older sister, aunt’ | *¢ə¢ə ‘older sister, aunt’ | |
| 167 | tight, closed, blocked | *¢Ɨːʔ | *-¢iːˈ ‘tight, closed, blocked’ | *¢əʔ{ks} | *¢əʔkš ‘to become tight’ | ||
| 168 | kiss | *¢Uːʔkʸ | *¢uːˈk- ‘kiss’ | *¢uːʔk{s} | *¢uːʔkš ‘kiss’ | ||
| 169 | *¢Uk | *¢uˈq- ‘write, draw, paint’ | *¢uk{s} ‘to scratch, to sketch, to outline’ | ||||
| 170 | *¢Uʔ¢ | *¢uˈ¢{úˈ} ‘suck’ | *¢uʔ¢ ‘suckle, bite’ | ||||
| 171 | say | *wan | *wan ‘say’ | *wan | POM *wanahn ~ *wanaʔan ‘to say’ | *wan ‘to sing’ | |
| 172 | twist | *wiːʔt | *-wiːt ‘twisted, winding, curved’ | *wiːʔt ‘to twist’ | |||
| 173 | *wiʔk | *wiq ‘’ | *wiʔk | *wiːk ~ *wiʔk ‘to whistle’ | |||
| 174 | *wɔːʔk | *waːq ‘scratch, dig’ | *woːʔk ‘to grasp a fistful of something’ | Coatlán < wo.k ~ woːk § (vt) ‘dig’, Gu < woːk, wyo.ʔpʸ § ‘scratch, scratch (leaving a mark)’. | |||
| 175 | *wɔhʔš | *waš- ‘scratch’ | *woːʔs ‘to scrape’ | ||||
| 176 | plane (v.) | *wəkʸ | *wak- ‘planeV’ | *wək | *wək ‘to slice’ | ||
| 177 | saw | *wƏt | *waˈt{áˈ} ‘saw’ | *wət | *wət ‘break’ | Sierra Popoluca wəːt ‘chop down’. | |
| 178 | be high | *wƏʔkʸ | *waˈk{áˈ} ‘be high’ | *wəʔk{s} | *wəʔks ‘to hook’ | Northern Chiapas Zoque wəʔks ‘hook something, hang something’. | |
| 179 | marmalade fruit | *xaːkʸ ~ *waːkʸ | *xáːk{aˈ} ‘Marmalade Fruit’ | *{kaʔ}wak | *kaʔwak ‘Red Sapote’ | ||
| 180 | into downward | *xoːh | *-xuː ‘into downward’ | *hoh | *hoːht-pi ‘inside’ | *hoh ‘contents’ | PM *hoht-pi is expected. |
| 181 | hummingbird; bird | *xon | *xun ‘hummingbird’ | *hon ‘bird’ | |||
| 182 | deer | *x(əy)uːkʸ | *xúːk{iˈ} ‘deer’ | *həyuk | POM *həyuk ‘beast of burden’ | Juquila, Jaltepec həyúhk ‘animal, horse’. | |
| 183 | smoke (v.) | *xɨn | *xin ‘smokeV’ | *hən | *həhn ‘fire, cooking fire’ | ||
| 184 | soft | *yA | *{¢aˈ}táˈtaˈ ‘soft’ | *{ʔu}ya | *ʔuya ‘soft’ | ||
| 185 | grow | *yahʔkʸ ~ *yehʔkʸ | *{s}tak- ‘grow’ | *yeːʔk | *yeːʔk ‘grow’ | ||
| 186 | cry, yell | *yAʔs | *taˈs{á} ‘cry, yell, vocalize’ | *yaʔs | *yaʔš ~ *yaːš ‘cry, yell’ | ||
| 187 | *yeɬ ~ *yeʔɬ | *tiɬ- ‘spread out (to dry)’ | *ye(ʔ)y ‘to lay out (...beans), dry’ | ||||
| 188 | jab, prick, poke | *yoqo- | *tuqú ‘jab, prick, poke’ | *yoʔo{¢} | POM *yoʔ¢ ~ *yoʔo¢ ‘to pierce’ |
Below are lexical comparisons with Chitimacha, along with proposed Proto-Chitimacha-Totozoquean reconstructions, by Brown, Wichmann & Beck (2014).[2]
The Chitimacha data is from unpublished data by Morris Swadesh. Proto-Totozoquean, Proto-Totonacan, Proto-Mixe-Zoquean, and other Mixe-Zoquean lower-level reconstructions are reconstructions by Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown et al.
| English gloss | Chitimacha | Proto-Chitimacha-Totozoquean | Proto-Totozoquean | Proto-Totonacan | Proto-Mixe-Zoquean | other Mixe-Zoquean |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| to grind | kihȼi- ‘to grind, mash something by beating’ | *kʸɨhɁtʸ¹i | *kʸɨhɁti ‘to grind’ | *(S)kití ‘to grind on metate’ | *kǝːɁt ‘to grind pinole’ | |
| to tickle someone | čikine’ ‘to tickle someone’ | *tʸikin ~ tʸikʸin | *tikin ~ *tikʸin ‘to touch, tickle’ | PZ *tikin ‘to touch’ (Note: SaP tikin ‘tickle someone), PMZ | ||
| ants | ȼ’iːsȼ’ik’ahȼik’ut ‘ants’ | *ȼiku't ~ *ȼikʸu't | *ȼiku't ~ *ȼikʸu't ‘ant(s)’ | PZ *hahȼuku ‘ant’, POM *ȼukn ‘ant’, PM (Veracruz) *ȼukut(ik) ‘ant’, | ||
| leached corn | nowa ‘Indian hominy’ | *ⁿko¹'waː² | *ka'waː < *ko'waː (vocalic assimilation) ‘nixtamal’ | *qa'waː ‘nixtamal’ | ||
| cane | piya ‘cane-reed’ | *pɨː²ya' ~ *pɨː²'ya' | *pɨːya' ~ *pɨː'ya' ‘cane’ | ‘wild cane’ | ||
| to see, to look at | Ɂam- ‘to see something, to look at something’ | *ɁaɁm ~ *Ɂa'Ɂm | *ɁaɁm ~ *Ɂa'Ɂm ‘to see, look at’ | |||
| to stick | Ɂuȼ+te- ‘to stick, adhere; to stick something on’ | *Ɂoː²Ɂȼ ~ *Ɂoː² 'Ɂȼ | *ɁoːɁȼ ~ *Ɂoː'Ɂȼ ‘to stick’ | ɁoːɁȼ ‘to stick’ | ||
| mat | t’aːna ‘cane-reed mat’ | *taː'hⁿkaɁ | *-ta'hkɁ ~ *-tIhkɁ ‘to weave (mat)’ | *šta'qat- ~ *šti'qat- ‘woven sleeping mat’ | *taːkɁ ‘to weave’ | |
| basket | kaːkt ‘double-weave basket of oblong shape’; kaːstp ‘plait in basketry’ | *kaː¹Ɂk ~ *kaː¹Ɂkʸ ~ *kʸaː¹Ɂkʸ ~ *kʸaː¹Ɂk; *kaː¹ ~ *kʸaː¹ | *kaɁk ~ *kaɁkʸ ~ *kʸaɁkʸ ~ *kʸaɁk ‘basket’; *kač ~ *kʸač ~ *ka¢ ~ *kʸa¢ ‘basket’ | ; | ||
| bone | kaȼi ‘bone’ | *kʸu¹tʸ¹i | *kʸuti ‘bone’ | *lukuti ‘bone’ | ||
| fish | makš ‘fish’ | *makš ~ *makʸš ~ *ma'kš ~ *ma'kʸš | *-akš ~ *-a'kš ~ *-akʸš ~ *-a'kʸš ‘fish’ | *Ɂaksa ‘fish’ | ||
| flower, to flower | šaːmu ‘flower’ | *šaː¹'m¹a¹ ~ *šaː'hm¹a¹ | *ša'na ~ *ša'hna ‘to flower’ | *ša'ná ‘to flower’ | ||
| to eat | k’uš+t ‘to eat something’ | *kVː² 'Ɂš ~ *kʸVː² 'Ɂš | *kəәː'Ɂš ~ *kɨː'Ɂš ~ *kʸəәː'Ɂš ~ *kʸɨː'Ɂš ‘to eat, bite’ | *kǝːɁs ‘to bite into something hard’ | ||
| pretty, handsome | k’eːsi(k’i) ‘pretty, beautiful, handsome’ | *kyV:¹'si ~ *kyV:'hsi | *kyV'si ~ **kyV'hsi ‘pretty, handsome’ | PTp *k’usi ‘pretty, handsome’, (no PMZ) | ||
| to break | puːk+te- ‘to break something up fine’; toh- ‘to break’ | *pa¹ː'hk; *to¹- | *pa'hk ‘to break’; *to- ‘to break’ | *pa'q(S)- ‘to break (tr.)’; *tukša ‘to break’ | PZ *pak ‘to move horizontally against something’ PMZ (Note: ChisZ-N pahk ‘to pound something”.) | |
| side | pay+e ‘side, on the side’ | *paː²n | *paːn ‘side’ | *paːn ‘belly, side’ | ||
| red | pin- ‘red’; č’ak+i ‘cold’ | *pi'n | *pi'n ‘red’; *šu'k ~ *šu'ky ‘to cool off, be cold’ | *(S)pi'n- ‘red’ | *nǝɁpin ‘blood’; *šʸu1'k ~ *šʸu1'ky COLD; | |
| sour | č'am+i ‘sour’ | *šʸu¹:²'m¹ | *šuː'n ‘sour’ | *šúː'n ‘bitter’ | ||
| you | was ‘you (pl.)’ | *we¹'sy | *wi'š ‘you (sg.)’ | *wi'š ‘you (sg.)’ | ||
| under, part under | his- ‘under’ | *xɨsy ~ *xɨ'sy | *xɨš ~ *xɨ'š ‘part under’ | *hǝs… ‘back’ | ||
| house | hana ‘house, home, room, dwelling’ | *-ǝⁿkaː² | *tʸǝkaː (Note: revised from Tz *tʸǝk) | *čaqaː- ‘house’ | *tǝk ‘house’ | |
| cornfield, maize stalks, stems | kaːmu ‘sprout; stem’ | *kaː¹ma¹ ~ *kʸaː¹ma¹ ~ *kaː¹ma¹' ~ *kʸaː¹ma¹' | *kama ~ *kʸama ‘cornfield’ | *kama ‘cornfield’ | ||
| to cut, break | k’aːȼ+t ‘to cut around, trim something’; to cut something off by cutting around’ | *kɔː'Ɂȼ ~ *kɔː'hɁȼ ~ *kyɔː'Ɂȼ ~ *kyɔː'hɁȼ | *kɔ'hɁȼ ~ *kɔː'Ɂȼ ~ *kʸɔ'hɁȼ ~ *kʸɔː'Ɂȼ ‘to break’ | *koːɁȼ ‘to break’ | ||
| to chew | č’ak’um+t ‘to chew’ | *ča'ka¹' | *ȼa'ka' ‘to chew’ | *ȼa'qá' ‘to chew’ | ||
| to shell corn | kuːs+pa- ‘to shell (corn)’ | *kʸuː¹sy | *kʸuš ‘to shell (corn)’ | *kúši' ‘corn (maize), corn kernels’ | *Ɂɨks ‘to shell (corn)’ | |
| squash | *čiška ‘pumpkin’ | *čiɁ | *ȼiɁ- ‘squash’ | PM ȼiɁwa ‘squash’ PMZ | ||
| lime (calcium hydroxide) | kupšeš ‘lime’ | *ka¹(p)š | *kaš ‘lime’ | *qaštax ‘lime’(calcium hydroxide)’ | *Ɂakas ‘lime’ | |
| to fold | k’eptki ‘fold’ | *ke'p | *ka'p ‘to fold’ | *qa'ps- ‘to fold’ | ||
| oak | k’ahčin ‘oak tree’; čuhču ‘wooden basket of a certain type made of soft oak ~ cypress’ | *kʸa'htʸ; šʸox | *kʸa'ht ‘oak’; *šox ‘oak’ | *kuka't ‘oak’ | *soho ‘oak’ | |
| maize | k’asma ‘corn’ | *kʸe¹'s | *kʸi's ‘corn kernels’ | *kí'spa' ‘corn (kernels) | *Ɂǝks-i ‘corn nibs (dry)’ | |
| brain | katma ‘marrow; brain’ | *kʸe¹t | *-kʸit ~ *-kʸit ‘brain’ | *(a'k)skititi ‘brain’ | ||
| meat | kipi ‘meat, flesh; body’ | *kʸiCiː² | *kʸiniː ‘meat’ | *kiníːt ‘meat’ | ||
| louse | ȼat ‘louse’ | *kʸwaː²t | *-kʸwaːt ‘louse’ | *skáːta ‘louse’ | *Ɂawat ‘louse’ | |
| bottom | makta ‘rear, stern, bottom’ | *mɔː²kʸ ~ *mɔː² 'k ~ *mɔː² 'kʸ ~ *mɔː²k | *ɔːkʸ ~ *ɔː 'k ~ *ɔː 'kʸ ~ *ɔːk ‘bottom’ | *Ɂoːk ‘bottom’ | ||
| paper | naːkšt ‘paper; letter’ | *nɔː¹k ~ nɔː¹kʸ ~ *nɔː¹'k ~ nɔː¹'kʸ | *nɔk ~ nɔkʸ ~ *nɔ'k ~ nɔ'kʸ ‘paper’ | noki ‘paper’ | ||
| wing | paːnt’in ‘wing’ | *paː¹ⁿk | *pak ‘wing’ | *paqa- ‘arm, wing, branch’ | *pak ‘bone’ | |
| to pinch | paȼ+t- ‘to pinch someone’ | *pe¹'(n)kʸw | *pi'nkʸw ‘to pinch’ | *pi'nkš- ‘to pinch’ | *piw ‘to pick up’ | |
| person | panš ‘person, relative, friend; mankind’ | *pǝn | *pǝn ‘person’ | *laːpana ~ laːpani ‘person’ | *pǝn ‘man’ | |
| cloud | pok+ta ‘sky, cloud’ | *po¹k ~ *po¹kʸ | *puk ~ *pukʸ ‘cloud’ | *puqɬ(ni) ~ *pukɬ(ni) ‘cloud’ | ||
| to swing | tahy+te- ‘to swing’ | *tǝ¹hɁ- | *tɨhɁ ‘to rock, swing’ | *(S)tiwí ‘to rock (tr.), swing (tr.)’ | *tǝːɁy ‘to rock’ | |
| cheek | waːku ‘cheek’ | *-aːkʸa¹ | *-aːkʸa ‘cheek’ | *laka- ‘face, planar surface’ | *Ɂaːka ‘cheek, edge’ | |
| down, to bend down | kam+te ‘to bend down, to bend something down’ | *kǝ¹Ɂm ~ *kʸǝ¹Ɂm | *kɨɁm ~ *kʸɨɁm- ‘down’ | *kǝɁmǝ ‘down’ | ||
| girl, woman | kiča ‘woman’ | *kišʸa ~ *kʸišʸa | *kiša ~ *kʸiša ‘girl’ | |||
| to grow, grown | yaːk’i ‘grown, adult’ | *yVːhɁkʸ(i)' | *yahɁkʸ ~ *yehɁkʸ ‘to grow’ | *stak- ‘to grow’ | *yeːɁk ‘to grow’ | |
| be lying, be in a horizontal position | pe(h) ‘auxiliary verb of horizontal position’ | *peː²' | *paː' ‘to be lying’ | *paː' ‘to be lying (second person)’ | ||
| that | t’a ‘demonstrative’ | *ta' | *ta' ‘that (distal)’ | ta' ‘that (distal)’ | ||
| to talk, say | č’aːm- ‘to talk (about…), converse’ | *čaː'm | *ȼaː'm ‘to say’ | |||
| outside, row, furrow, middle | nuk ‘outside, to the outside’ | *ⁿkuk | *škuk ‘row, furrow, middle’ | *šquq ‘row (of plants), furrow’ | *kuk ‘middle’ | |
| to turn around, spin, roll | (kap)pič ‘to turn all the way around’ (Note: this is from Swanton (1919ː44) where it is presented as ) | *pi'tʸ | *-pi't ‘to roll (up)’ | *spi't- ‘to roll, spin; return’ | *pit ‘to roll up’ | |
| to plunge in, shoot with arrow | tip+te- ‘to plunge in’ | *tɨp | *tɨp ‘to shoot with arrow’ | *tip- ‘to shoot arrow’ | *tǝp ‘to stab, shoot with arrow’ | |
| plural, everything | nak ‘(postposition)… and everything else, everything including…’ | *ntǝ¹k ~ *ntǝ¹ky ~ *ntəә¹'k ~ *ntəә¹'ky | *-tɨk ~ *-tɨky ~ *-tɨ'k ~ *-tɨ'ky ‘plural’ | *-tǝk(ay) ‘(suffix) plural’ | ||
| to bundle, wrap, bind | waːȼ+t- ‘to wrap, bundle something up (with, in something)’ | *waː¹tʸ¹ ~ *waː¹ 'tʸ¹ | *wat ~ *wa't ‘to bind together’ | *wat ‘to bind together things that are placed on top of each other’ | ||
| to say, tongue | wenɁ ‘tongue’ (Note: ‘the tongue, speech’ (Swanton 1919ː48) | *wen | *wan ‘to say’ | *wan ‘say’ | *wan ‘to say, to sing’ | |
| inside, indoors | huh- ‘going indoors’ | *xoː²x | *xoːx ‘into, inside’ | *-xuː ‘into downward’ | *hoh ‘inside, contents’ | |
| to see, to seek | ʔiš+i- ‘to seek; to collect; to tease’ | *ʔiš- | *ʔiš ‘to see’ | *ʔiš ‘to see’ | ||
| rain | kaya ‘rain’ | *kʸaː²n | *-kʸaːn ‘rain, water’ | škaːn ‘rain, water’ | ||
| squirrel | kuːmit ‘squirrel’ | *kʸuː¹Ɂ | *-kʸuɁy ‘large squirrel’ | *škúti' ‘coatimundi’ | *kuɁy ‘large, red squirrel’ | |
| to split | p’aːp+te- ‘to split … off’ | *paː¹'p ~ *paː¹p | *pa'p- ~ *pap- ‘to split’ | *paps ‘to split’ | ||
| to become wet | t’eyk+te- ‘to get wet’ | *te'Ɂ | *-ta'Ɂ ‘to get wet’ | *(S)ta'x- ‘to drip, get wet’ | *taɁks ‘to drip’ | |
| to cry | yeh+t- ‘to cry’ | *ye'Ɂ | *ya'Ɂs ‘to cry, yell’ | *ta'sá ‘to cry, yell, vocalize’ | *yaɁs ‘to cry, yell’ | |
| to hew, to saw | wačuŋkš+t- ‘to adze, hew something’ | *wəә'tʸa¹' | *wəә't ‘to saw, break’ | *wa'tá' ‘to saw’ | PZ *wǝt ‘to break’ | |
| to go and return, arrive | Ɂuy- ‘to arrive, reach’ | *Ɂoy ~ *Ɂo'y | *Ɂoy ~ *Ɂo'y ‘to go (roundtrip)’ | *Ɂoy ‘to go (and now have returned)’ | ||
| sharp point, blade | sit’i(k’i) ‘sharp pointed; sharp (eyes)’ | *si't(i)' | *sit- ‘to cut with blade’ | *sit- ‘to cut with blade’ | ||
| bug | č’iːš ‘bug; worm’ | *čiː'š | *ȼiː'š ‘bug species’ | *ȼiː'š ~ ȼiː's ‘cricket’ | *ȼisi(k) ‘bedbug’ | |
| beat (in conflict) | nakš ‘war’ | *nakš | *nakš ‘to beat’ | *naq- ~ *nik- ‘to, beat, hit’ | *naks ‘to whip, beat’ | |
| to cook by boiling | šuš+t ‘to boil, to boil something’ | *šoː²š- ~ *šoː² 'š- | *šoːš ~ *šoː'š ‘to cook in water’ | *soːs ‘to cook in water’ | ||
| to sew | č’uš+i ‘to sew’ | *ča¹' | *ȼa' ‘to sew’ | *ȼa'pá' ‘to sew’ | ||
| night, dark | č’ima ‘night’ | *či'- ~ *či:'- | *ȼi's ~ *ȼiː's ‘dark, night’ | *ȼiː's ‘dark, night' | *ȼis ‘dark’ | |
| knee | mokun ‘knee, lap’ | *ko- | *kos ‘knee’; *¢uqus- ‘knee’ | *koso(k) ‘knee’ | ||
| coals | kups ‘coal, fire coals’ | *ku | *-ku ‘to burn’ | *šqu ‘fire, to burn’ | ||
| head | kut ‘head; top end; stem (of a boat); bud; mind, sense’ | *kʸo | *kʸo ‘head’ | *kuk- ‘head (prefix)’ | *ko-pak ‘head’, *ko- ~ koɁ- ‘head, reach’ | |
| moon, month | panɁ ‘moon, month’ | *pɔ | *pɔ ‘moon, month’ | *papá' ‘moon, month’ | *poyɁa ‘moon, month’ | |
| sun | č’aɁa ‘sun’ | *šʸəә'- ~ *šʸəә¹'- | *šəә'- ~ *šɨ'- ‘sun’ | *sǝw ‘sun, feast, name’ | ||
| younger sibling | tat’in ‘younger sibling; younger first cousin on the mother’s side’ | *tǝ- | *-tǝnkʸw ‘younger male sibling’ | *stánku' ‘younger sibling’ | *tǝwǝ ‘brother’ | |
| earth, land | neyɁ ‘earth, ground, land, country’ | *nti'- | *ti'- ‘land, earth’ | *ti'ya't ‘land, earth’ | ||
| heavy | naȼ’i(k’i) ‘heavy’ | *ȼɨ' | *ȼɨ' ‘heavy’ | ȼi'nk- ‘heavy’ | ||
| to draw, to write | haːkš+te ‘to write to someone; to draw something’ | *xaː- ~ *xaː'- | *xaː- ~ *xaː'- ‘to write’ | *haːyɁ ‘to write’ | ||
| good, well | huyi / huygi / huyyi / huyigi ‘good; well, proper, true, right’ | *-oy ~ *-o'y | *oy ~ *o'y ‘good, well’ | *ɁoyV ‘good, well’ | ||
| stem, stalk | kaːpti ‘stem of plant’ | *ka:¹p ~ *kʸaː¹p | *kap ~ *kʸap ‘plant with salient stem’ | *kape ‘type of bamboo’ (Note: ChZ kape ‘thin reed’). | ||
| to be cold, shiver | k’aːs+te ‘to shiver’ | *kyǝ:¹'s ~ *kyǝ:¹'hs | *kyǝ's ~ *kyǝ'hs ‘to be cold’ | |||
| non-proximal deictic | manki ‘there, yonder, in a place that is distant but familiar to speaker’ | *ma'n- | *a'n- ‘medial deictic’ | *a'n- ‘medial deictic’ | ||
| herb, plant | muhȼ ‘button bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis)’ | *mu(h)ȼ ~ *mu'(h)ȼ | *uȼ ~ *u'ȼ ‘herb, plant’ | POM Ɂuhȼ ‘herb, plant’, PMZ | ||
| to cut roughly | pokš+t- ‘to cut something irregularly’ | *po¹ː²Ɂ- | *poːɁ- ‘to cut roughly’ | *poːɁt ‘to cut with machete’ | ||
| fruit | nanu ‘persimmon’ | *ntəә¹'n | *tɨ'n ‘seed, fruit’ | *ti'n ‘seed’ | *tǝm ‘fruit’ | |
| spirit or animal guardian | nek+ma- ‘to league (with someone), especially with an animal guardian…’ | *nti:²ky- | *tiːky- ‘spirit’ | *tiːkúː' ‘proprietary spirit’ | ||
| cane type | waːsimiš 'young cane-reed (under a year old)' | *wa:s- ~ *wa:sy- | *waːs- ~ waːš- ‘cane’ | PM *wa:šuk ‘sugarcane’, PMZ | ||
| spread apart, parted | weːk+te- ‘to have the legs spread apart’ | *weː¹Ɂk ~ *weː¹Ɂkʸ ~ *weː¹'Ɂk ~ *weː¹'Ɂkʸ | *waɁk ~ *waɁkʸ ~ *wa'Ɂk ~ *wa'Ɂkʸ ‘to be parted’ | *waɁks ‘to be divided, parted’ | ||
| reed | Ɂakt ‘kind of musical horn...consisting of a hollow reed..; whistle, flute; bow, arrow; barrel of gun’ | *Ɂɔː²kʸ ~ *Ɂɔː² 'k ~ *Ɂɔː² 'kʸ ~ *Ɂɔː²k | *Ɂɔːkʸ ~ *Ɂɔː'k ~ *Ɂɔː'kʸ ~ *Ɂɔːk ‘reed’ | Ɂoːkwin ‘reed’ | ||
| to drip | č’up- ‘to drip, leak’ | *ču'- | *ȼu'n ‘to drip’ | *ȼun ‘to drip’ | ||
| to be sick, die | niː+ki ‘to be sick | *ni: | *niː ‘to die’ | *niː ‘to die’ | ||
| general locative particle | nk ‘general relationship post-position’ | *nVkʸ | *nVk ‘general locative proclitic’ | *nak= ‘general locative proclitic’ | ||
| to teach to, to say | neːm+aɁ ‘to teach something to someone’ | *nVː¹'m ~ *nVː¹m | *nǝm ~ *nəә'm ‘to say’ | *nǝm ‘to say’ | ||
| demonstrative | we ‘referential demonstrative, the, that (mentioned before)’ | *we | *wa ‘proximal demonstrative’ | *wa ‘proximal demonstrative’ | ||
| frog | weːk’iš ‘frog of a small, blue variety; lizard’ | *wVː¹kV' | *weka' ‘frog’ | *waq | ‘frog, toad’ | |
| bird species | kunsno ‘bird of a canary-like species called gizzard bird’ | *kun ~ *kʸun | *kun ~ *kʸun ‘Montezuma’s Oropendula’ | *kunu ‘Montezuma’s Oropendula’ | ||
| to blow | puhtibak / puht’ibak ‘blow gun’ | *pox- | *pox ‘to blow (the wind)’ | *poh ‘to blow (the wind)’ | ||
| grandmother, grandparent’s sister | koɁ ‘parents’ ~ grandparents’ sister’ | *ko¹ ~ *kʸo¹ | *-ko ~ *-kʸo ‘grandmother’ | *Ɂoko ‘grandmother’ | ||
| twenty/hundred | puːp ‘hundred’ | *puː¹' | *pu'š ‘twenty’ | *pu'šám ‘twenty’ | *ɁiːɁps ‘twenty’ | |
| having to do with nose (to smell, snot) | siʔ- / siʔi- ‘to have an odor’ (Note: šiš ‘nose’) | *syi | *ši ‘snot’ | *šil ‘snot’ | *sit ‘snot’ | |
| peel, skin, bark, to peel something | suɁu ‘skin, hide, shell, peel, bark’ | *syuː² ~ *suː² | *suː and *šuː ‘to peel’ | *suː and *šuː ‘to peel something (inner skin, outer layer)’ | ||
| lizard, iguana | tekniš ‘lizard of a certain tailless variety of 4 ~ 5 inches in length’ | *tVː²k ~ *tVː²kʸ | *toːk ~ *toːkʸ ~ *tɔːk ~ *tɔːkʸ ‘iguana’ | *toːki ‘iguana’ | ||
| to cut, tear, split, sever | ȼ’it- ‘to cut something, cut out, sever something; to cut something up’ | *tʸ¹Vː²'t | *teː't ‘to split, tear’ | *(S)tiː't- ‘to tear, split, rip’ | *teːt ‘to split, tear’ | |
| fire, to smoke, kindle | hahwi- ‘to kindle (fire)’ | *xǝ¹ | *xɨn ‘fire, to smoke’ | *xin ‘to smoke’ | *hǝn ‘fire, cooking fire’ | |
| to pierce, bore a hole | hap+t- ‘to bore (a hole)’ | *xu¹- ~ *xu¹'- | *xu- ~ *xu'- ‘to pierce’ | *hut ‘to pierce’ | ||
| to swim, bathe | yup- ‘to bathe, take a bath’ | *yu- ~ *yu'- | *yun ~ *yu'n ‘to swim’ | *yun ‘to swim’ | ||
| to explode, shoot | paːh+ma- ‘to shoot’ | *pǝː¹ | *pǝnkw ‘to burst’ | *panq-‘to burst, explode’ | *pǝw ‘to burst’ | |
| foot, take a step | t’eːkš+te ‘to make a step, to stride’ | *tVː¹'k ~ *tVː¹'kʸ | *te'k ~ *te'kʸ ‘foot’ |