American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
| No. | English | Ingush гӀалгӀай мотт (Ğalğay mott) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | I | со (so) |
| 2 | you (singular) | хьо (ḥʳo) |
| 3 | he, she, it | из (iz) |
| 4 | we | тхо (txo) |
| 5 | you (plural) | шо (šo) |
| 6 | they | уж (už) |
| 7 | this | ер (jer) |
| 8 | that | дӏа вар (dˀa var) |
| 9 | here | укхаз (uqaz) |
| 10 | there | цига (ciga) |
| 11 | who | мала (mala) |
| 12 | what | фу (fu) |
| 13 | where | мича (miča) |
| 14 | when | маца (maca) |
| 15 | how | мишта (mišta) |
| 16 | not | дац (dac) |
| 17 | all | деррига (derriga) |
| 18 | many | дукха (duqa) |
| 19 | some | масайтта (masajtta) |
| 20 | few | къеззига (qʼezziga) |
| 21 | other | кхаво (qavo) |
| 22 | one | цхьаъ (cḥʳaʔ) |
| 23 | two | шиъ (šiʔ) |
| 24 | three | кхоъ (qoʔ) |
| 25 | four | диъ (diʔ) |
| 26 | five | пхиъ (pxiʔ) |
| 27 | big | сийлахь (siı̇laḥʳ) |
| 28 | long | дIаьха (dˀäxa) |
| 29 | wide | шера (šera) |
| 30 | thick | сома (soma) |
| 31 | heavy | деза (deza) |
| 32 | small | зIамига (zˀamiga) |
| 33 | short | лоаца (loaca) |
| 34 | narrow | готта (gotta) |
| 35 | thin | диткъа (ditqʼa) |
| 36 | woman | кхалсаг (qalsag) |
| 37 | man (adult male) | маӏсаг (maˀsag) |
| 38 | man (human being) | саг, адам (sag, adam) |
| 39 | child | бер (ber) |
| 40 | wife | сесаг (sesag) |
| 41 | husband | мар (mar) |
| 42 | mother | нана (nana) |
| 43 | father | да (da) |
| 44 | animal | аькха (äqa) |
| 45 | fish | чкъаьра (čqʼära) |
| 46 | bird | оалхазар (oalxazar) |
| 47 | dog | жӏали (žˀali) |
| 48 | louse | меза, маза (meza, maza) |
| 49 | snake | бIехал (bˀexal) |
| 50 | worm | нIана (nˀana) |
| 51 | tree | га (ga) |
| 52 | forest | хьу (ḥʳu) |
| 53 | stick | гIадж (ğadž) |
| 54 | fruit | сом (som) |
| 55 | seed | ги, генараш (gi, genaraš) |
| 56 | leaf | гIа (ğa) |
| 57 | root | овла (ovla) |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | коаст (koast) |
| 59 | flower | зиза (ziza) |
| 60 | grass | буц (buc) |
| 61 | rope | муш (muš) |
| 62 | skin | цIока (cʼoka) |
| 63 | meat | дулх (dulx) |
| 64 | blood | цIий (cʼii) |
| 65 | bone | тIехк (tʼexk) |
| 66 | fat (noun) | мухь (muḥʳ) |
| 67 | egg | фуъ (fuʔ) |
| 68 | horn | муIа (muˀa) |
| 69 | tail | цIог (cʼog) |
| 70 | feather | бедарг (bedarg) |
| 71 | hair | мос (mos) |
| 72 | head | корт (kort) |
| 73 | ear | лерг (lerg) |
| 74 | eye | бIарг (bˀarg) |
| 75 | nose | мераж (meraž) |
| 76 | mouth | баге (bage) |
| 77 | tooth | царг (carg) |
| 78 | tongue (organ) | мотт (mott) |
| 79 | fingernail | мIара (mˀara) |
| 80 | foot | лаьпа, ког (läpa, kog) |
| 81 | leg | ког (kog) |
| 82 | knee | го (go) |
| 83 | hand | кулг (kulg) |
| 84 | wing | ткъам (tqʼam) |
| 85 | belly | гийг (giı̇g) |
| 86 | guts | че (če) |
| 87 | neck | фоарт (foart) |
| 88 | back | букъ (buqʼ) |
| 89 | breast | накха (naqa) |
| 90 | heart | дог (dog) |
| 91 | liver | дийхк (diı̇xk) |
| 92 | to drink | мал (mal) |
| 93 | to eat | даа (daa) |
| 94 | to bite | царгаш етт (cargaš jett) |
| 95 | to suck | Iувда (ˀuvda) |
| 96 | to spit | тугаш кхувса (tugaš quvsa) |
| 97 | to vomit | Iеттаде (ˀettade) |
| 98 | to blow | хьекха (ḥʳeqa) |
| 99 | to breathe | садаха (sadaxa) |
| 100 | to laugh | дела (dela) |
| 101 | to see | бIаргаго (bˀargago) |
| 102 | to hear | хаза (xaza) |
| 103 | to know | ха (xa) |
| 104 | to think | уйла е (ujla je) |
| 105 | to smell | хьаж кхета (ḥʳaž qeta) |
| 106 | to fear | кхера (qera) |
| 107 | to sleep | наб е (nab je) |
| 108 | to live | даха (daxa) |
| 109 | to die | ле (le) |
| 110 | to kill | ве (ve) |
| 111 | to fight | лата (lata) |
| 112 | to hunt | тIакхе (tʼaqe) |
| 113 | to hit | тоха (toxa) |
| 114 | to cut | теда, даккха (teda, daqqa) |
| 115 | to split | декъа (deqʼa) |
| 116 | to stab | ӏотта (ˀotta) |
| 117 | to scratch | секаш даха (sekaš daxa) |
| 118 | to dig | ахка, баккха, даха (axka, baqqa, daxa) |
| 119 | to swim | наьк де (näk de) |
| 120 | to fly | гIетта (ğetta) |
| 121 | to walk | лела (lela) |
| 122 | to come | ва (va) |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | алла (alla) |
| 124 | to sit | вагIа (vağa) |
| 125 | to stand | латта (latta) |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | кхастра (qastra) |
| 127 | to fall | тIадала (tʼadala) |
| 128 | to give | |
| 129 | to hold | лацца (lacca) |
| 130 | to squeeze | |
| 131 | to rub | |
| 132 | to wash | |
| 133 | to wipe | |
| 134 | to pull | |
| 135 | to push | |
| 136 | to throw | |
| 137 | to tie | де (de) |
| 138 | to sew | тега (tega) |
| 139 | to count | |
| 140 | to say | ала (ala) |
| 141 | to sing | илли ала (illi ala) |
| 142 | to play | ловза (lovza) |
| 143 | to float | |
| 144 | to flow | |
| 145 | to freeze | |
| 146 | to swell | деста (desta) |
| 147 | sun | малх (malx) |
| 148 | moon | бутт (butt) |
| 149 | star | седкъа (sedqʼa) |
| 150 | water | хий (xii) |
| 151 | rain | догӏа (doğa) |
| 152 | river | хий (xii) |
| 153 | lake | Iам (ˀam) |
| 154 | sea | форд (ford) |
| 155 | salt | тух (tux) |
| 156 | stone | кхера (qera) |
| 157 | sand | гӏум (ğum) |
| 158 | dust | дом (dom) |
| 159 | earth | лаьтта (lätta) |
| 160 | cloud | морх (morx) |
| 161 | fog | дохк (doxk) |
| 162 | sky | сигале (sigale) |
| 163 | wind | мух (mux) |
| 164 | snow | лоа (loa) |
| 165 | ice | ша (ša) |
| 166 | smoke | кӏур (kʼur) |
| 167 | fire | цӏи (cʼi) |
| 168 | ash | йокъ (joqʼ) |
| 169 | to burn | доагаде (doagade) |
| 170 | road | никъ (niqʼ) |
| 171 | mountain | гув (guv) |
| 172 | red | цӏе (cʼe) |
| 173 | green | баьццара (bäccara) |
| 174 | yellow | ӏажагӏа (ˀažağa) |
| 175 | white | кӏай (kʼaj) |
| 176 | black | ӏаьржа (ˀärža) |
| 177 | night | бийса (biı̇sa) |
| 178 | day | ди (di) |
| 179 | year | шу (šu) |
| 180 | warm | мела (mela) |
| 181 | cold | шийла (šiı̇la) |
| 182 | full | диза (diza) |
| 183 | new | керда (kerda) |
| 184 | old | шира, тиша, къаьна (šira, tiša, qʼäna) |
| 185 | good | дика (dika) |
| 186 | bad | бирса, во (birsa, vo) |
| 187 | rotten | дохкаданна (doxkadanna) |
| 188 | dirty | бIеха (bˀexa) |
| 189 | straight | нийса (niı̇sa) |
| 190 | round | герга (gerga) |
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | ира (ira) |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | аьрхӏа (ärha) |
| 193 | smooth | шаьра (šära) |
| 194 | wet | тӏаьда (tʼäda) |
| 195 | dry | дакъа (daqʼa) |
| 196 | correct | нийса (niı̇sa) |
| 197 | near | уллув, гаргара, юхера (ulluv, gargara, juxera) |
| 198 | far | гаьнара (gänara) |
| 199 | right | аьтта (ätta) |
| 200 | left | аьрда (ärda) |
| 201 | at | |
| 202 | in | -чухьа (-čuḥʳa) |
| 203 | with | |
| 204 | and | а (a) |
| 205 | if | нагахьа санна (nagaḥʳa sanna) |
| 206 | because | хӏана аьлча (hana älča) |
| 207 | name | цӏи (cʼi) |