This is a Swadesh list of words in Xiang, compared with definitions in English.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
Pronunciation and vocabulary taken from Old Generation Changshanese.
| № | English | Xiang 長沙話 / 长沙话 edit (207) | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | I (1sg) | 我 (ngo3) | ŋo⁴¹ |
| 2 | you (2sg) | 你 (nyi3) | ȵi⁴¹ |
| 3 | he, she, it (3sg) | 他 (ta1) | tʰa³³ |
| 4 | we (1pl) | 我們 / 我们 (ngo3 men) | ŋo⁴¹ mən⁰ |
| 5 | you (2pl) | 你們 / 你们 (nyi3 men) | ȵi⁴¹ mən⁰ |
| 6 | they (3pl) | 他們 / 他们 (ta1 men) | tʰa³³ mən⁰ |
| 7 | this | 咯個 / 咯个 | kai²⁴ ko⁰ |
| 8 | that | 那個 / 那个 | la⁵⁵/lai⁵⁵ ko⁰ |
| 9 | here | 咯裏 / 咯里 (go6 li), 咯塊子 / 咯块子 | ko²⁴ li⁰, ko²⁴/kai²⁴ kʰuai⁴¹ tsɿ⁰ |
| 10 | there | 那裡 / 那里 (la4 li), 那塊子 / 那块子 | la⁵⁵ li⁰, la⁵⁵ kʰuai⁴¹ tsɿ⁰ |
| 11 | who | 哪個 / 哪个, 何至個 / 何至个 (o2 zhr4 go4) (used in suburbs) | la⁴¹/lai⁴¹ ko⁰, o¹³ ʈʂʅ⁵⁵ ko⁵⁵ |
| 12 | what | 麼子 / 么子 (mo3 zr), 麼傢伙 / 么家伙 | mo⁴¹ tsɿ⁰, mo⁴¹ tɕia³³ xo⁰ |
| 13 | where | 哪裏 / 哪里 (la3 li), 哪塊子 / 哪块子 (la3 kuai3 zr), 何至 (o2 zhr4) (used in suburbs) | la⁴¹ li⁰, la⁴¹ kʰuai⁴¹ tsɿ⁰, o²⁴ ʈʂʅ⁵⁵ |
| 14 | when | 麼子時候 / 么子时候 (mo3 zr shr2 hou) | mo⁴¹ tsɿ⁰ ʂʅ¹³ xəu⁰ |
| 15 | how | 何是 | o²⁴ ʂʅ⁰ |
| 16 | not | 不 (bu6) | pu²⁴ |
| 17 | all | 都 (dou1), 咸 (han2) | təu³³, xa¹¹ |
| 18 | many | 多 (do1) | to³³ |
| 19 | some | 一些 | i²⁴ sia³³ |
| 20 | few | 少 | ʂau⁴¹ |
| 21 | other | 別的 / 别的 | pʰie²⁴ ti⁰ |
| 22 | one | 一 (i6) | i²⁴ |
| 23 | two | 二 (e5), 兩 / 两 (lian3) | ə¹¹, lian⁴¹ |
| 24 | three | 三 (san1) | san³³ |
| 25 | four | 四 (sr4) | sɿ⁵⁵ |
| 26 | five | 五 (u3) | u⁴¹ |
| 27 | big | 大 | tai¹¹ |
| 28 | long | 長 / 长 (zhan2) | tʂan¹³ |
| 29 | wide | 寬 / 宽 | kʰõ³³ |
| 30 | thick | 厚 | xəu¹¹ |
| 31 | heavy | 重 | tʂən⁵⁵ |
| 32 | small | 細 / 细, 小 (siau3) | si⁵⁵, siau⁴¹ |
| 33 | short | 短 (donn3) | tõ⁴¹ |
| 34 | narrow | 窄 | tsə²⁴ |
| 35 | thin | 薄 | po²⁴ |
| 36 | woman | 女人, 女的 (nyy3 di) | ȵy⁴¹ ʐən¹³, ȵy⁴¹ ti⁰ |
| 37 | man (adult male) | 男人, 男的 | lan¹³ ʐən¹³, lan¹³ ti⁰ |
| 38 | man (human being) | 人 (ren2) | ʐən¹³ |
| 39 | child | 細伢人 / 细伢人, 細人子 / 细人子 (si4 ren2 zr) | si⁵⁵ ŋa¹³ tsɿ⁰, si⁵⁵ ʐən¹³ tsɿ⁰ |
| 40 | wife | 堂客 (dan2 ke6) | tan¹³ kʰə²⁴ |
| 41 | husband | 男人, 老倌 | lan¹³ ʐən¹³, lau⁴¹ kõ³³ |
| 42 | mother | 媽媽 / 妈妈 (ma1 ma), 姆媽 / 姆妈 (m1 ma1), 娘 (nyian2) (indirect) | ma³³ ma⁰, m⁴¹ ma⁰, ȵian¹³ |
| 43 | father | 爹爹, 爺爺 / 爷爷, 爺老倌 / 爷老倌 (ia2 lau3 gonn1) (indirect), 爺老子 / 爷老子 (ia2 lau3 zr) (indirect) | tie³³ tie⁰, ia¹³ ia⁰, ia¹³ lau⁴¹ kõ³³, ia¹³ lau⁴¹ tsɿ⁰ |
| 44 | animal | 動物 / 动物 | tən¹¹ u²⁴ |
| 45 | fish | 魚 / 鱼 (y2) | y¹³ |
| 46 | bird | 鳥 / 鸟 | tiau⁴¹/ȵiau⁴¹ |
| 47 | dog | 狗 (gou3) | kəu⁴¹ |
| 48 | louse | 虱婆 | sə²⁴ po¹³ |
| 49 | snake | 蛇 | ʂa¹³/ʂə¹³ |
| 50 | worm | 蟲 / 虫 (zhong2) | tʂoŋ¹³ |
| 51 | tree | 樹 / 树 | ɕy¹¹ |
| 52 | forest | 樹林 / 树林 | ɕy¹¹ lin¹³ |
| 53 | stick | 樹椏子 / 树桠子 | ɕy¹¹ ŋa³³ tsɿ⁰ |
| 54 | fruit | 水果 (xyei3 go3) | ɕyei⁴¹ ko⁴¹ |
| 55 | seed | ] | |
| 56 | leaf | 樹葉子 / 树叶子 (xy5 ye6 zr) | ɕy¹¹ ie²⁴ tsɿ⁰ |
| 57 | root | 樹根 / 树根 | ɕy¹¹ kən³³ |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | 樹皮 / 树皮 | ɕy¹¹ pi¹³ |
| 59 | flower | 花 (fa1) | fa³³ |
| 60 | grass | 草 (cau3) | tsʰau⁴¹ |
| 61 | rope | 繩子 / 绳子, 索子 (so6 zr) | ʂən¹³ tsɿ⁰, so²⁴ tsɿ⁰ |
| 62 | skin | 皮膚 / 皮肤 | pi¹³ fu³³ |
| 63 | meat | 肉 (rou6) | ʐəu²⁴ |
| 64 | blood | 血 (xie6) | ɕie²⁴ |
| 65 | bone | 骨頭 / 骨头 (gu6 tou) | ku²⁴ təu⁰ |
| 66 | fat (noun) | ] | |
| 67 | egg | 蛋 | tan¹¹ |
| 68 | horn | 角 | ko²⁴ |
| 69 | tail | 尾巴 (uei3 ba1) | uei⁴¹ pa³³ |
| 70 | feather | 羽毛 (y3 mau2) | y⁴¹ mau¹³ |
| 71 | hair | 頭髮 / 头发 (tou2 fa6) | tʰəu¹³ fa²⁴ |
| 72 | head | 腦殼 / 脑壳 (lau3 ko6) | lau⁴¹ kʰo²⁴ |
| 73 | ear | 耳朵 (e3 do) | ə⁴¹ to⁰ |
| 74 | eye | 眼睛 | ŋan⁴¹ tsin³³ |
| 75 | nose | 鼻子 (bi6 zr) | pi²⁴ tsɿ⁰ |
| 76 | mouth | 嘴巴 (zei3 ba) | tsei⁴¹ pa⁰ |
| 77 | tooth | 牙齒 / 牙齿 (nga2 chr3) | ŋa¹³ tʂʰʅ⁴¹ |
| 78 | tongue (organ) | 舌子 (she6 zr) | ʂə²⁴ tsɿ⁰ |
| 79 | fingernail | 指甲子 (zhr6 ga6 zr) | tʂʅ²⁴ ka²⁴ tsɿ⁰ |
| 80 | foot | 腳 / 脚 (jio6) | tɕio²⁴ |
| 81 | leg | 腳欛子 / 脚欛子 (jio6 ba4 zr) | tɕio²⁴ pa⁵⁵ tsɿ⁰ |
| 82 | knee | 磕膝骨, 膝頭骨 / 膝头骨 (si6 tou gu) | kʰə²⁴ si²⁴ ku²⁴, si²⁴ təu⁰ ku²⁴ |
| 83 | hand | 手 (shou3) | ʂəu⁴¹ |
| 84 | wing | 翼胛 (ie4 ga) | ie⁵⁵ ka⁰ |
| 85 | belly | 肚子, 肚皮 | təu⁴¹ tsɿ⁰, təu¹¹ pi¹³ |
| 86 | guts | 腸子 / 肠子 (zhan2 zr) | tʂan¹³ tsɿ⁰ |
| 87 | neck | 頸根 / 颈根 (jin3 gen1) | tɕin⁴¹ kən³³ |
| 88 | back | 背脊 (bei4 zi6) | pei⁵⁵ tsi²⁴ |
| 89 | breast | 胸門口 / 胸门口 (chest), 奶子 (lai3 zr) (female organ) | ɕioŋ³³ mən¹¹ kʰəu⁴¹, lai⁴¹ tsɿ⁰ |
| 90 | heart | 圞心 / 𪢮心 (lonn2 sin1) | lõ¹³ sin³³ |
| 91 | liver | ] | |
| 92 | to drink | 吃 | tɕʰia²⁴ |
| 93 | to eat | 吃 | tɕʰia²⁴ |
| 94 | to bite | 咬 | ŋa⁵⁵ |
| 95 | to suck | 嗍, 津 | so³³, tsin³³ |
| 96 | to spit | 吐 | tʰəu⁴¹ |
| 97 | to vomit | 嘔 / 呕 | |
| 98 | to blow | 嗍 | so³³ |
| 99 | to breathe | ] | |
| 100 | to laugh | 笑 (siau4) | siau⁵⁵ |
| 101 | to see | 看 | kʰan⁵⁵ |
| 102 | to hear | 聽 / 听 (tin1) | tʰin³³ |
| 103 | to know | 曉得 / 晓得 (xiau3 de) | ɕiau⁴¹ tə⁰ |
| 104 | to think | 想 (sian3) | siæn⁴¹ |
| 105 | to smell | 聞 / 闻 | uən¹³ |
| 106 | to fear | 畏怯 (uei4 qie6), 怕 (pa4) | uei⁵⁵ tɕʰie²⁴, pʰa⁵⁵ |
| 107 | to sleep | 睏覺 / 困觉 (kun4 gau4), 睏 / 困 (kun4) | kʰuən⁵⁵ kau⁵⁵, kʰuən⁵⁵ |
| 108 | to live | 活 (ho6) | xo²⁴ |
| 109 | to die | 死 (sr3) | sɿ⁴¹ |
| 110 | to kill | 殺 / 杀 (sa6) | sa²⁴ |
| 111 | to fight | 扯皮 (che3 bi2) | ʈʂʰə⁴¹ pi¹³ |
| 112 | to hunt | 趕山 / 赶山 (gan3 san1) | kan⁴¹ san³³ |
| 113 | to hit | 打 (da3) | ta⁴¹ |
| 114 | to cut | 割 | ke⁵⁵ |
| 115 | to split | 劈 | pʰi²⁴ |
| 116 | to stab | ] | |
| 117 | to scratch | ] | |
| 118 | to dig | 挖 | ua²⁴ |
| 119 | to swim | 玩水 (uan2 xyei3) | uan¹³ ɕyei⁴¹ |
| 120 | to fly | ] | |
| 121 | to walk | 走 (zou3), 跑 (pau3) | tsəu⁴¹, pʰau⁴¹ |
| 122 | to come | 來 / 来 (lai2) | lai¹³ |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | 睏 / 困 (kun4) | kʰuən⁵⁵ |
| 124 | to sit | 坐 | tso¹¹ |
| 125 | to stand | 徛 (ji5) | tɕi¹¹ |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | ] | |
| 127 | to fall | 跌 | tie²⁴ |
| 128 | to give | 把 (ba3) | pa⁴¹ |
| 129 | to hold | 拿 | la³³ |
| 130 | to squeeze | 擠 / 挤 | |
| 131 | to rub | 砑 | ŋa¹¹ |
| 132 | to wash | 洗 (si3) | si⁴¹ |
| 133 | to wipe | 湊 / 凑, 抹, 揩 | tsʰəu⁵⁵/tsʰei⁵⁵, ma²⁴, kʰai³³ |
| 134 | to pull | 扯 (che3) | tʂʰə⁴¹ |
| 135 | to push | 推 (tei1) | tʰei³³ |
| 136 | to throw | 甩 (xyai3) | ɕyai⁴¹ |
| 137 | to tie | 捆 (kun3) | kʰuən⁴¹ |
| 138 | to sew | ] | |
| 139 | to count | 算噠 / 算哒 | sõ⁵⁵ ta⁰ |
| 140 | to say | 講 / 讲 | tɕian⁴¹ |
| 141 | to sing | 唱 (chan4) | tʂʰan⁵⁵ |
| 142 | to play | 玩 | uan¹³ |
| 143 | to float | ] | |
| 144 | to flow | ] | |
| 145 | to freeze | 構凌 (gou4 lin5), 下凌 (xia5 lin5) | kəu⁵⁵ lin¹¹, ɕia¹¹ lin¹¹ |
| 146 | to swell | ] | |
| 147 | sun | 日頭 / 日头 (r6 dou) | ʐʅ²⁴ təu⁰ |
| 148 | moon | 月亮 (ye6 lian5) | ye²⁴ lian¹¹ |
| 149 | star | 星子 (sin1 zr) | sin³³ tsɿ⁰ |
| 150 | water | 水 (xyei3) | ɕyei⁴¹ |
| 151 | rain | 雨 (y3) | y⁴¹ |
| 152 | river | 河 (ho2) | xo¹³ |
| 153 | lake | 湖 (fu2) | fu¹³ |
| 154 | sea | 海 (hai3) | xai⁴¹ |
| 155 | salt | 鹽 / 盐 (ienn2) | iẽ¹³ |
| 156 | stone | 石頭 / 石头 (shr6 dou) | ʂʅ²⁴ təu³ |
| 157 | sand | 沙婆 (sa1 bo2) | sa³³ po¹³ |
| 158 | dust | 灰 (fei1) | fei³³ |
| 159 | earth | 泥巴 (nyi2 ba1) | ȵi¹³ pa³³ |
| 160 | cloud | 雲 / 云 (yn2) | yn¹³ |
| 161 | fog | 罩子 (zau4 zr) | tsau⁴⁵ tsɿ⁰ |
| 162 | sky | 天 (tienn1) | tʰiẽ³³ |
| 163 | wind | 風 / 风 (hong1) | xoŋ³³ |
| 164 | snow | 雪 (sie6) | sie²⁴ |
| 165 | ice | 凌 | lin¹¹ |
| 166 | smoke | 煙 / 烟 (ienn1) | iẽ³³ |
| 167 | fire | 火 (ho3) | xo⁴¹ |
| 168 | ash | ] | |
| 169 | to burn | ] | |
| 170 | road | 路 (lou5) | ləu¹¹ |
| 171 | mountain | 山 (san1) | san³³ |
| 172 | red | 紅 / 红 (hong2) | zoŋ¹³ |
| 173 | green | 綠 / 绿 (lou6) | ləu²⁴ |
| 174 | yellow | 黃 / 黄 | uan¹³/fan¹³ |
| 175 | white | 白 (be6) | pə²⁴ |
| 176 | black | 黑 (he6) | xə²⁴ |
| 177 | night | 夜間子 / 夜间子 | ia¹¹ ka⁰/xa⁰ tsɿ⁰ |
| 178 | day | 白天 | pə²⁴ tʰiẽ³³ |
| 179 | year | 年 (nyienn2) | ȵiẽ¹³ |
| 180 | warm | ] | |
| 181 | cold | 冷 (len3) | lən⁴¹ |
| 182 | full | 滿 / 满 (monn3) | mõ⁴¹ |
| 183 | new | 新 (sin1) | sin³³ |
| 184 | old | 老 (lau3) (of high age) | lau⁴¹ |
| 185 | good | 好 (hau3) | xau⁴¹ |
| 186 | bad | 壞 / 坏, 拐 | fai¹¹, kuai⁴¹ |
| 187 | rotten | ] | |
| 188 | dirty | 邋遢 (la6 ta6), 邋糊 (la3 fu2) | la²⁴ tʰa²⁴, la⁴¹ fu¹³ |
| 189 | straight | 直 (zhr6) | tʂi²⁴ |
| 190 | round | 圞 / 𪢮 (lonn2) | lõ¹³ |
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | 快 (kuai4) | kʰuai⁵⁵ |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | 鈍 / 钝 | tən¹¹ |
| 193 | smooth | 流光 | liəu³³ kuan³³ |
| 194 | wet | 濕 / 湿 | ʂʅ²⁴ |
| 195 | dry | 乾 / 干 | kan⁴¹ |
| 196 | correct | 對 / 对 (dei4) | tei⁵⁵ |
| 197 | near | 近 | tɕin¹¹ |
| 198 | far | 遠 / 远 (yenn3) | yẽ⁴¹ |
| 199 | right | 右 | iəu¹¹ |
| 200 | left | 左 (zo3) | tso⁴¹ |
| 201 | at | 在 | təu¹¹ |
| 202 | in | 在 | təu¹¹ |
| 203 | with | 跟 (gen1) | kən³³ |
| 204 | and | 跟 (gen1) | kən³³ |
| 205 | if | 要是 | iau⁵⁵ sɿ¹¹ |
| 206 | because | 因為 / 因为 (in1 uei2), 因得 (in1 de6) (dated) | in³³ uei¹³, in³³ tə²⁴/ |
| 207 | name | 名 (min2) | min¹³ |