The appendix contains 100-word Swadesh lists for Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
No. | English gloss | Rawati (Raji) | Khamci (Raute) | Dura | Chepang | Baraamu | Thami | Newar |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | I | naa | ngaa | ŋi ~ ŋe | ŋa | ŋa | gai | ji |
2 | thou | nang | naa, nhhang | no | naŋ | naŋ | naŋ | cʰə, cʰi |
3 | we | naani jammaa | ngaa, na, nani | ŋyāro | ni, ŋi | ni | ni | jʰi:, jipĩ |
4 | this | ai | ii | ī | ʔiʔ | yo | ka | tʰwə |
5 | that | aiyaa | he | huī | ʔowʔ, ʔuwʔ | u, to | to | wə |
6 | who | chuin | ‘se; tse, nhhamʔ | su | su | su | su | su |
7 | what | hu | hai, hang | hāde | doh | hai | hara | cʰu |
8 | not | haa | nai, nā (as verb suffix: -re/rai) | ma-, ta- (prohibitive) | -la, -ma | ma- | ma- | mə-, -mə- |
9 | all | jammaa ~ jammal | mwalyae | dhāī | juda, ʔanə | səpəi (< Nep.) | sakale | pʰukkə, dakkwə |
10 | many | jikkal | bo-kani, bo, buoh | bhāī | ʔa.nə | dʰerəi (< Nep.) | ahe | ye-kwə |
11 | one | daa, ga | daa | kyau, nām, di- | yat | de | di | cʰə-gu |
12 | two | nii ~ nhii | nhi | jʰim, ŋe- | nis | nis | nis | nyi-gu |
13 | big | bai-inaa | ghaare | kātʰe | taŋh-ʔo | alam | jekʰa | tə:dʰə̃: |
14 | long | lang | - | kānu, remo ~ hreŋo | gyaŋ-ʔo | alam | ələmga | tahakə: |
15 | small | ʈuhaa, chui-ce | lhhaʔ | ācʰirī | mi-ʔo | ikine | ucya | cidʰi:, cidʰə:̃ |
16 | woman | maʈhialaa | umaakhala, umaa | misā | nom-coʔ | mama | camaica | misa |
17 | man | manjha | ba, s'ye; s'yela, māukyaa | kalārā, bro | goy-coʔ | papa | mi | mijə̃ |
18 | person | manca | mi: mur; murka, mukala | bro | manta, coʔ | bal | mi | mənu |
19 | fish | boraa | gaah, gap | ɖisyā, nāh ~ nāhõ ~ nāhũ ~ nāi | ŋaʔ | nəŋa | naŋa | nya |
20 | bird | gidhaa | bwaah, buaʔ | o | waʔ | jyali, wa (hen) | ḍaŋaṇeŋ, wa (hen) | jʰə̃gə: |
21 | dog | kuii | kwui | nākyu ~ nakyu ~ nakī, koka | kuyʔ | akya | kucu | kʰyica |
22 | louse | sira | shuhroh | syā | kras, srəyk | kʰat | sirik | syi |
23 | tree | shiing | s'iu; tsiu, shing | kepo ~ kemo | siŋʔ | seŋma | seŋ | syi-ma |
24 | seed | biye | - | ʈisro, hulu | sayʔ | ayu | puya | pusa |
25 | leaf | huwaah, huwaa-aa, khuaa | hwaah, waʔ | lyoī, lho | lo, mat | su/hola | aja | ləpte, hə: |
26 | root | jadao | goy, nyuri (wild yams), dz'ra | - | rut, goyʔ | jəra (< Nep.) | nara | ha |
27 | bark | siing khallaw | thaapa, thakpa | - | pun | bokra (< Nep.) | sebu (skin) | kʰwəla |
28 | skin | khallyai | kiri; kriakaa, kirikyae | ke | pun | cʰala (< Nep.) | sebi | cʰẽgu |
29 | flesh (meat) | sya | s'yaa, yaa, pyaa, s'iu, shiaeʔ | syo | mayʔ | kusya | cici | la |
30 | blood | khui | s'ui, ks'ap | hāyu | wəyʔ | cihwui | cwoi, cəi | hi |
31 | bone | haɖang | haare, haar'm | - | hrus | hoṭ | kʰosa | kwəẽ |
32 | grease | - | ge; gela | duccʰu | cʰaw | ucʰo | cʰyəu, cyou | da: |
33 | egg | anɖaa | bhi; bhibhiya, bhiya | odī, onī | ʔum | wohom, wom | ahum, wom | kʰẽ: |
34 | horn | sioang | sikk'm | soglo, sono | roŋʔ | uyuŋ | naru | nyeku |
35 | tail | pucheraa | muahta, mukyae | - | meʔ | pitik | limek | nʰipyə̃: |
36 | feather | pakhaa | phakaa, pwohx | phya | meʔ, pʰeh | pwãkʰ (< Nep.) | - | pəpu |
37 | hair | haamuu | rung | kra | myaŋ | syam | sam | sə̃: |
38 | head | gaɽaa | garaah, g'rhha | padʰe | ta.laŋ | kəpu | kapu | cʰyə̃: |
39 | ear | ghunaa, hunaa | gunaah | naya, muni, rānu | no | kuna | kunla | nʰaepə̃ |
40 | eye | mhiike, niike | mikaah; mhiiga | mi | mik | mik | mesek | mikʰa |
41 | nose | shinaa | ‘sinaah, shinga | nu | neh | cina | ciŋa | nʰae |
42 | mouth | khaaber | chyu(re), mu | māsi, sũ | hmo.toŋ | anam | ugo | mʰutu |
43 | tooth | daaɽo | s'wāah, tshwa | sa ~ se | syək, səyk | swa | suwa | wa |
44 | tongue | jibaiɽo | laale, muuhm, mhhwOm | li | le | cele | cile | mye |
45 | fingernail | nhiang | leehm, lhhel | se | sən | luŋjiŋ, ləgjuŋ | pin | lusyi |
46 | foot | bhaa, panjaa | bhaah | sepe | dom | unjik | konṭe, ulaŋ | tuti |
47 | knee | puhai | phukh, gaʈho | - | kryoŋ | gʰũḍa (< Nep.) | pokolek | puli |
48 | hand | hakai | aakhaa | kuru | krut | hit | lak | lʰa: |
49 | belly (stomach) | laado | guduu, gudong, photo ('entrails') | kyu | tuk | uyaŋ | baŋkal, guŋguŋ | pwa: |
50 | neck | gardhan | manto, m'nthu, ghaature | kʰalī, po ~ põ | kəyk | gʰãṭi (< Nep.) | kaṇṭu | gəpə: |
51 | breast | cucca | susi | nāmlo | ʔoh | nənu | nunu | duru-pwə |
52 | heart | - | paatii, mutu | māu | hluŋ | muṭu | loŋsek | nugə |
53 | liver | mulyaa | kharabdaah, bara | ciŋ | sinh | kəlejo (< Nep.) | - | syẽ |
54 | drink | tung | jhum, jaaya, hum, ti-I, tì | kiu- | tuŋʔ-na | syaŋ-go | tun-sa | twəne, twənə |
55 | eat | jaako, jale, jaa-aa | jaa; jaaku; jaaya, ka; kaare | co- | jeʔ-na | ca-go | cya-sa | nələ, nəye |
56 | bite | kai | ka; kaiyaa, k'I | - | ŋawh-na | aŋak-ko | cek-sa | nyatə, wã nyaye |
57 | see | guhe | bigaap, bighhae | do- ~ dõ-, mātā- | yo-na, cewʔ-na | ayo-go, ni-go | yo-sa | kʰənə, kʰəne |
58 | hear | huung-ye | guno, gunaare | tās-, tāu-, tānu- | sayʔ-na | səi-go | na-sai-sa | talə, taye |
59 | know | dahau | - | syo- | ci-na | ra-go, cigo | sai-sa | silə, syiye |
60 | sleep | iishe | s'ii; s'iyaah, seh, kwih | tānu- | ʔenʔ-sa | nu-go | ammi-sa | denə, dene |
61 | die | shiiya | s'i; s'iya | si- | si-sa | si-go | si-sa | sitə, syie |
62 | kill | haate-ko | ath-oh | sā-, kāne-, kāde | sat-sa | sat-ko | sat-sa | syatə, syae |
63 | swim | raa pe | kha-buwa, bou-kha-buwa, bowti | - | laʔ-na, kwelh-na | pəuri bəne-go (< Nep.) | lampasa | lalkalə/kaye |
64 | fly | bo | bwaah (n.?), pharaei (v.?) | ŋyau, hāsu- | syuŋ-na | uble-go | per-sa | bwələ, bwəye |
65 | walk | - | hwaa-I, khwa | so- | wah-na | jyo-go, ya-go (go) | cawa-sa, ajyaca | nya:se, wənə, wəye |
66 | come | biir/hi-ir | bi; biye, bi-e, pi-ye | hro | waŋ-na | hyuŋcelgo | kelet-sa | wələ, jʰalə |
67 | lie | jhuʈi-haa-syaa | lat (lie down) | - | ʔenʔ-na | na-go | ami-sa | mu:pulə, |
68 | sit | khuung yaa | sweh, sweh guni; aysapha, dzuye | huni- | cuŋʔ-na | huk-ko | hok-sa | dilə, pʰetuye |
69 | stand | yeki | phuyo; phayaah, phuyu | decʰe- | ciŋ-na | ṭʰiŋ-go | tʰeŋ-sa | dənə, dane |
70 | give | bai-y, baiko | nyaa; bayaa, khaalu | hyo- | bəyʔ-na, hla-na | pi-go | pi-sa | bila, biye |
71 | say | neko | khaama (to speak); thi-i, shi dhaami | cʰi- | dayh-na | da-go | ŋa-sa, isdu | dʰalə, dʰaye |
72 | sun | diiho | bel, berh, dhāmu | mamī | nyam | uni | uni | surdyə: |
73 | moon | dunnaa | jhyunna, bair, berh (not exact terms for moon, not comp.) | tālā | lah | cəlauni | cəlauni | timla |
74 | star | taaraa | tui-tui | -so (in compound) | kar | tara (< Nep.) | ucʰi | nəu, nəgu |
75 | water | tii, chi | tsi | ti ~ ʈi | tiʔ | awa | paŋku | lə: |
76 | rain | barkhaa | s'gyae, tii-i | ti ~ ʈi | tiʔ, waʔ-ʔo | aŋmət | yudu | wa |
77 | stone | - | - | thũ ~ tũ, kāno ~ kānu | baŋ | kumba | lyuŋ, liŋ | lwəhã |
78 | sand | ballyaa | bolyaa | - | - | - | - | pʰi |
79 | earth | dexa | desha , samsar | kācʰo, cʰuu | saʔ | nəsa | nasa | ca |
80 | cloud | diiho | dewaah, dewaʔ | - | mus | amu | kʰasu | supãe |
81 | smoke | - | dhukaāh, dhuma | ma-kʰu | hmeʔ-ku | isku | asku | kũ |
82 | fire | bhåoy / mhai | mhe:h, muhèi | mi | hmeʔ | mui | me | mi |
83 | ash | dhuli | kuhli, duhri, dhulo | ma-pʰu | hmeʔ-mut | mau | tarba | nəu |
84 | burn | lung (vi.) | - | bani- | jʰəm-na | jo-go | jyou-sa | cyatə, cyaye |
85 | path | yong | yaun-khyaa-nu, yung | lāutʰyo | lyam | uŋma | ulam | lã |
86 | mountain | biʈʈaa; dhaɽe (peak) | manam (hill); malam, kheɖ' | lgẽwarapʰa | pa.har | pahaḍ | cyuri (top) | pahar |
87 | red | ʈulhariyaa | tui, sha | cʰāblī | du-ʔo | pʰəya | keret | hyãũ |
88 | green | hariyo / hariya | hwaa (dark green - gagina), kamaiyo, k'm'iu | - | pli-ʔo | həriyo (< Nep.) | - | wãũ |
89 | yellow | pero, piilè | byaalo, hwi-byelo, p'rhho | kẽlo | yar-ʔo | keuwo | melu | mʰasu |
90 | white | dhaurya | dhyaulyaa, dhyaurya, dhauɽia, ghouraya | bintʰā | bʰam-ʔo | gyabo | ubo | tuyu: |
91 | black | tuknahaa | tokaanye, namaro | keplo | gal-ʔo | ciliŋ | kiji | haku |
92 | night | gaire | gadhir | yāku | ya. ʔdiŋ | rat (< Nep.) | ṭa | canʰəe, ca |
93 | hot | gamma | chunu, ghohnohw | - | dʰah-ʔo | gyodum | adum | kwa: |
94 | cold | ʈhanɖa | jungha, dzung | cʰiũ | nik-ʔo | ciso (< Nep.) | ajik | kʰwaũ |
95 | full | bharata | jimai (filled), bwohb | ʈʰyāmmay | bliŋ-ʔo | kipoŋ | ir-ir | ja: |
96 | new | nong | niu, nhu; n'u | kācʰā | rəw-ʔo | kaui | naka | nʰu: |
97 | good | nhikah | namar (person), lagalo | cʰyāu- (v), cʰāblī (also ‘red’) | pe-ʔo | kisen | apraca | bʰĩ: |
98 | round | baʈulo | - | burluŋ | luŋ-o, gore | golo (< Nep.) | kurliŋ | gwəlla: |
99 | dry | kaarau we (vi.) | karaao | - | sot-ʔo | kyoksi | areŋ, gaŋdu | gə̃gu |
100 | name | naam | miĩhga | rāmī | məyŋ | umin | name | nã |