The following lists of Proto-South Mande reconstructions are from Vydrin (2005, 2007).
Internal classification of the South Mande languages by Vydrin (2005, 2007):
The Proto-South Mande reconstructions below are from Vydrin (2007).
Consonant inventory of Proto-South Mande by Vydrin (2007):
| *p | *t | *c (?) | *k | *kp | |
| *b | *d | *j | *g | *gʷ (?) | *gb |
| *f | *s | *x (?) | |||
| *z | |||||
| *ɓ/m | *ɗ/n | *y/ɲ | *ƙ | *ƙʷ (?) | *w/w̃ |
Reconstructed Proto-South Mande lexicon (Vydrin 2007):
| English gloss | Proto-South Mande | notes |
|---|---|---|
| dig (to) | *pɔ̃́ | |
| drum | *pīlīŋ | |
| fall (to) | *pèlé | |
| fell (to) | *pɔ̃́ | |
| fill (to) | *pá | |
| iron | *pèlì | |
| lick | *pã̄nã̄ | |
| market | *pɛ́lɛ́ | |
| piece | *pɛ̃́ɛ̃́ | |
| untie | *púló | |
| say | *pē | |
| thing | *pã̄ | |
| two | *pìì-lāŋ | |
| white | *púLú | |
| touch (to) | *pá | |
| fonio (Digitaria exilis) | *péní | |
| house | *pɛ́lɛ́ | |
| vomit | *pɛ̄yɪ̀ | |
| wash | *pólé | |
| small | *pɪ̄ɪ̄-nɛ́ | |
| tale | *pḭ̄yã̀ | |
| tear | *pīà | |
| testicles | *pã̀nã̀ | |
| thing | *pɔ̄ | |
| twin | *pílàŋ | |
| blow | *péyà | |
| winnow | *pìyɛ̀ | |
| frog | *Ǹ-pōlì | |
| trace | *Ǹ-píyé | |
| stomach, belly | *Ǹ-pùlù | |
| bowl | *páá | |
| ant | *fḭ̀ḭ̀ | |
| better | *fìlá | |
| boil | *fílí | |
| breathe | *fḭ́nḭ́ | |
| cap | *fã́gã́ | |
| donkey | *sòó-fàlī | (may be a loanword from Manding) |
| empty | *fílèŋ | |
| force | *fã̀gã̄ | |
| force | *fúā | |
| light (not heavy) | *fūō(-fūō) | |
| powder | *fúyè | |
| sweat | *fūé | |
| sponge (zool.) | *fʊ̀ʊ̄ | |
| white metal | *fúáŋ́ | |
| dew | *fɛ̃́lḭ́ŋ (*Ǹ-fɛ̃́lḭ́ŋ ?) | |
| foam | *Ǹ-fʊ́lʊ́ŋ | |
| bury | *bìlìŋ | |
| crumb | *bũ̄nũ̄ | |
| cut (to) | *bala | |
| elephant | *bīyá | |
| much | *bèbè | |
| mud | *bōlì | |
| night | *bḭ́ɛ̃́ | |
| paste | *bɔ̃̀lɔ̃̀ŋ | |
| run | *bìlàŋ | |
| throw (to) | *bīlīŋ | |
| bag | *ɓɔ̀lɔ̄ | (< Manding ?) |
| bend | *ɓúà(-lá) | |
| dry up | *ɓɛ̄lɪ́ | |
| eat (to) | *ɓɪ̀lɪ̀ | |
| extract | *ɓō | |
| fructify | *ɓāā | |
| fruit | *ɓɛ̄ɛ̄ŋ | |
| go out (to) | *ɓɔ̄ | |
| goat | *ɓōlì | |
| God | *ɓālɪ̀ | |
| head | *ɓō | |
| hippopotamus | *ɓólù | |
| leaves | *ɓàlā | |
| life (subsistence) | *ɓēlí | |
| liver | *ɓúlú | |
| mute | *ɓʊɓʊ | |
| neck | *ɓɔ̄lɔ̄ | |
| other | *ɓáá | |
| pangolin | *ɓàà- | |
| press (to) | *ɓʊ̀lʊ́ | |
| sheep | *ɓálá | |
| termite (flying, ephemera) | *ɓɛ̄lɛ́ŋ | |
| this | *ɓɛ̄ | |
| venom | *ɓàā | |
| wound (a) | *ɓīlē | |
| yams (wild) | *ɓɛ́ɛ́ | |
| bird | *mã̀ã̀ | |
| broom | *mã̄ã̀ | |
| cowrie | *mɛ̃̀nɛ̃́ | |
| drink (to) | *mḭ́nḭ̀ | (cf. *swallow) |
| hear (to) | *mã̄ | |
| human | *maɛ̃̄ | |
| last (to) | *mɔ̃́ | |
| mango | *mã̄gólóŋ | |
| moon | *mã̄nɛ̃̀ŋ | |
| mouse | *mɔ̃̀ɔ̃̀ | |
| on (postposition) | *mã̀ | |
| rice | *mã̀nṹŋ | |
| ripen (to) | *mā | |
| snake | *mɛ̃̀nã̄ | |
| strike | *mã̀ã̀ | |
| swallow (to) | *mã̄nḭ́ | (cf. *drink) |
| thank | *mámá | |
| what? | *mɛ̃́ã̄ | |
| grave | *bũ̄ŋ | |
| harmattan | *bùù | |
| rot | *bɔ̃́ | |
| send | *bɔ̄ | |
| ten | *bū | |
| wake up | *bùò | |
| carry | *bũ̄ | |
| end | *bʊ̄ | |
| flower | *bũ̄ḭ́ | |
| porcupine | *bùlíŋ (?) | |
| plural marker | *bɔ̀ | |
| alive | ? *ɓɪ́ɪ̀ | |
| be | ? *ɓɪ̄ | |
| bunch | ? *ɓè | |
| eagle | ? *ɓìɓí | |
| garbage | ? *ɓílíŋ̀ | |
| horn | ? *ɓèlí | |
| powder | ? *mũ̀mṹ | |
| rope | ? *ɓàlɪ́ | |
| respect | ? *ɓɛ̄lɛ́ | |
| shine | ? *ɓílí | |
| dry season | ? *bɛ̀lɛ̀ | |
| lie (untruth) | ? *bēlē | |
| by (a postposition) | ? *bà | |
| mush | ? *bàá | |
| squirrel | ? *báòŋ̀ | |
| antelope | ? *ɓɛ̄lɛ̄ | |
| big | ? *ɓɛ̀lɛ́ | |
| friend | ? *ɓɛ̄ɛ̀ | |
| here | ? *ɓɛ́ | |
| viper | ? *ɓèlí | |
| granary | ? *ɓɛ̀ŋ́ | |
| powder | *bḭ̀ɛ̃̀ | |
| grass | *bɪ́ɪ̀ | |
| rain (to) | *bã̄ | |
| dig (to) | *pɔ̃́ | |
| black | *tīī | |
| charcoal | *tṹnɛ̃ | |
| close (to), shut (to) | *tã̄ | |
| darkness | *tēlē | |
| draw (to; water) | *tɔ́ŋ | |
| drop, point | *tʊ̄ʊ̄ | |
| earth | *tɔ̄lɛ́ | |
| ear | *tɔ́lɔ́ŋ | |
| fart | *tɔ̃́ | |
| father | *tɪ́ | |
| go (to) | *táá | |
| hill | *tɔ̃̄ɔ̃̄ | |
| law | *tɔ́ŋ̄ | |
| mongoose | *tōkō | |
| mush | *tòó | |
| mushroom | *tʊ́lʊ́ | |
| name | *tɔ́ | |
| orphan | *tɪ̀ɪ́ | |
| porcupine | *télí | |
| profit | *tɔ̃̀nɔ̃̀ | |
| red | *tɛ̃́ɛ̃́ | |
| red | *tã́nã̄ | |
| remain | *tʊ́ | |
| spoon | *tɔ́lɔ́ | |
| stranger | *tálìŋ | |
| then | *tV | |
| time | *tʊ́ŋ̄ | |
| tomorrow | *tɔ̄lɛ̄ | |
| weave (to) | *tã́ | |
| yet | *tũ̄ã̀ | |
| surface | *tà | |
| fire | *tɛ́ | |
| sneeze | *tīsé | |
| dance | ? *tã́ | |
| oil | ? *túlú | |
| sauce | ? *tʊ̀ʊ́ | |
| sow (to) | ? *tã̄ | |
| chest | ? *tóŋ̀ | |
| paternal aunt | *Ń-tɛ̃́nɛ̃̀ | |
| heap | *tḭ̀ŋ̀ | |
| ant | *dɔ̄nã̄ | |
| beer | *dɔ̀lɔ̀ŋ | (< Jula dɔ̀lɔ́, dɔ̀rɔ́) |
| borrow | *dɔ̃̀nɔ̃́ | |
| cook (to) | *dɔ̃̀nɛ̃́ | |
| cold | *dɔ̀ɔ̀lɔ̄ | |
| deep | *dũ̀ŋ | |
| fall (to) | *dìlá | |
| female | *dā | |
| hibiscus | *dà | |
| hook (fishing) | *dūlēŋ | |
| means | *dàwílí | (< Manding dàbári < Ar. dabbara take measures; machinate) |
| measure (to) | *dã̄ | |
| noise | *dḭ̄ŋ̄ | |
| one | *dʊ̄ | |
| ostrich | *dùgóŋ | |
| pot | *dɔ̀kɔ́ | |
| spear | *dḭ́ | |
| spider | *dɔ̃̄ã̄-nɛ́ | |
| stand (to) | *dɔ̄ | |
| teach (to) | *dã̀nã̄ | |
| termite (flying, ephemera) | *dɔ̀gɔ̄ | |
| that (conjunctive) | *dɔ̄ɔ̄ | |
| wasp | *dɔ̃̄nɔ̃̄-dɔ̃̄nɔ̃̄ | |
| web (of spider) | *dūláŋ | |
| who? | *dē | |
| axe | *dũ̀ã̄ | |
| bud | *dɔ̃̄ṹ | |
| buffalo | *dùò | |
| cow, cattle | *dùlī | |
| deep | *dũ̀ | |
| hang | *dũ̄ẽ̄ | |
| cough | ? *dɔ̃́nũ̄ | |
| francolin | ? *dʊ̄ʊ̄ | |
| know (to) | ? *dɔ̃̄ | |
| lie down | ? *dà | |
| new | ? *dɔ̄lɛ̀ | |
| father | *Ń-dɛ̀ɛ̄ | |
| snail | *dũ̀nḭ̄ | |
| advice | *ɗìò | |
| buy | *ɗɔ́ | |
| call | *ɗɛ̀ɛ̀ | |
| desire | *ɗɔ̀ɔ̄ | |
| front | *ɗíé | |
| hare | *ɗʊ̀ʊ̀ | |
| leaf | *ɗɛ́ɛ́ŋ | |
| leave (go away) | *ɗó | |
| lemon | *ɗɔm- (?) | (a loanword from European languages?) |
| lip | *lé | |
| market | *ɗɔ́ɔ́ | (< Manding *ɗɔ́gɔ́ ?) |
| at | *ɗā (postposition) | |
| rain | *ɗā | |
| round | *ɗɪ̄ɗɪ̄ | |
| sky | *ɗɛ̀ɛ̀ | |
| speak | *ɗìáŋ́ | |
| thorn | *ɗùùlé | |
| woman | *ɗɪ̄ | |
| come | *nũ̄ | |
| fasten | *nã̀ã̀ | |
| give (to) | *nɔ̃̄ | |
| grandmother | *nã̄ã́ | |
| milk | *nɔ̃́nɔ̃́ | (< Manding nɔ́nɔ́) |
| plural marker | *nù | |
| taste | *nɛ̃́nɛ̃́ | |
| wife | *nã̄ | |
| count | *ɗōŋ́ɗōŋ́ | |
| daughter | *ɗú | |
| place | *ɗɛ̀ŋ | |
| postposition - for | *ɗɛ̀ŋ | |
| sky | *ɗàŋ | |
| slave | *ɗùàŋ | |
| turn | *ɗìā | |
| bat | *nã̄ɛ̃̀ | |
| child | *nɛ̃́ | |
| cold | *nɛ̃́nɛ̃́ | |
| life (spirit) | *nḭ́ḭ̄ | |
| shadow | *nḭ̄nɛ̃̄ŋ | |
| tongue | *nã̄nɛ̃́ | |
| mouth | *ɗé | |
| hunger | *ɗī | |
| elder brother | *Ń-ɗòò | |
| mother | *Ń-ɗēā | |
| fog | *ɗólú | |
| dirt | *ɗùlì | |
| dirt | *tílíŋ | |
| arrive | *sí(-lá) | |
| beautiful | *sʊ̀ɛ́ŋ̀ | |
| bow (weapon) | *sã́ã̄ | |
| call | *síí | |
| cat | *sɛ́sɛ́-nɛ́ | |
| chew | *sʊ̄gʊ̄ | |
| cloth | *sɔ̄ | |
| comb | *sààkāà | |
| corner (external) | *sōŋ̄ | |
| eight | *sɔ́ɔ́ɗʊ́-ta-yààkā | |
| fast | *súŋ | (< Manding sṹ < Arab. ṣawm) |
| fire | *síé | |
| five | *sɔ́ɔ́-ɗʊ́ | |
| horse | *sògō | |
| insult | *sɔ̃̄nɔ̃́ | |
| insult | *sí | |
| knife | *sã̄nɛ̃́ | |
| life (timespan) | *sīī | |
| mat | *sāɛ́ | |
| nail | *sɔ̃̀nɛ̃́ | |
| near | *sɔ̄-nɔ̃́ | |
| nine | *sɔ́ɔ́ɗʊ́-ta-yììsḭ̀ḭ̀yã́ | |
| oil palm grain | *sɪ̄ | |
| pay (to) | *sàlā | (< Manding sàrá ?) |
| pepper | *súlɛ̀ | |
| pig | *súā | |
| please (to) | *sɔ́ | |
| pray (to) | *sélí | (< Maninka sáli, Baman séli < Arab. ṣalla) |
| rib | *sḭ̄ɛ̃́ | |
| rice | *sáká | |
| root | *sɛ̄-nḭ́ | |
| sacrifice, alm | *sálákà | (< Manding sáráká < Arab. ṣaḍaqa) |
| seven | *sɔ́ɔ́ɗʊ́-ta-pììlā(ŋ) | |
| six | *sɔ́ɔ́ɗʊ́-tà-dʊ̄ | |
| small | *sɛ́ɛ̀ | |
| shoe | *sã̀ɓālā | (< Manding sàbára, sànbára < Ar. sabbaat or Portugese sapata) |
| spoil | *sɪ̀lɛ́ | |
| take | *sí(-lá) | |
| tear off | *sʊ̄ʊ̄-lá | |
| tiredness | *sɛ̀ɛ̄ | |
| tooth | *sɔ̃̀ɛ̃́ | |
| torch | *sɔ̄-nã́ | |
| totem | *sɔ̃́-nɛ̃́ | |
| village | *sʊ́ɔ́ | |
| write | *sɛ́bɛ̄ | (< Manding sɛ́bɛ < Arab. ṣafḥa) |
| four | *yìì-sḭ̀ḭ̀yã́ | |
| gold | *sã̄ŋ́ | |
| affair, matter | *zāà | |
| again | *zíŋ̄ | |
| agama lizard | *zʊ̄ʊ̄ | |
| agent suffix | *-zã̀ | |
| antelope bushbock | *zʊ̀lʊ̀ | |
| bee | *zɔ̄lɔ̄ | |
| borassus palm | *zɛ̄ | |
| caterpillar | *zèkèlè | |
| descend | *zḭ̀-la | |
| grandfather | *zílè | |
| hatred | *zà | |
| heart | *zʊ̄lʊ̄ŋ | |
| husband | *zɔ̃nã́ | |
| magician | *zʊ̀ʊ́ | |
| pound (to) | *zɔ̃̄ | |
| road | *zīlàŋ | |
| sauce | *zḭ̄ã̀ | |
| scorpion (black, Pandinus gambiensis) | *zɛ̄ŋ- | |
| tip | *zɔ̄ɔ̄ | |
| wash | *zūlū | |
| pierce | *zūā | |
| here | *zèē | |
| ant | *zūlūŋ (? *Ǹ-sūlūŋ) | |
| bean | *zɔ̃̀lɛ̃̀ (? *Ǹ-sɔ̃̀lɛ̃̀) | |
| mosquito | *zɔ̃́ɛ̃́ (? *Ǹ-sɔ̃́ɛ̃́) | |
| today | *zɔ̃̄ | |
| pangolin | *Ǹ-zɔ̄ | |
| copper | *Ǹ-sḭ̄nã̄ | |
| tobacco | ? *zālā | |
| red | *zɔ̃́nɔ̃̀ | |
| bottom | *zùō | |
| monitor lizard | *zʊ̄lɛ̀ɪ̀ | |
| old | *zīī | |
| kill | *cɛ̄ | |
| middle | *cḭ̄nã̄ | |
| back | *kōlī | |
| bark (of tree) | *kɔ̄lɛ̄ | |
| bend | *kūlà | |
| boat | *kóŋ | |
| breast | *kūgū | |
| calabash | *kɔ̄ɛ̀ | |
| catch | *kṹ | |
| chameleon | *kɔ̃̄nɛ̃́ | |
| cotton | *kɔ̃́nɔ̃́nḭ́ | (< Manding kɔ́tɔ́ndí < Arab. quṭn-un) |
| country | *kɛ́lɛ́ | |
| crab | *kālòŋ | |
| dig | *kūlī | |
| do | *kɛ̄lɛ̄ | |
| healthy | *kɛ̃́nɛ̃́ | |
| hammer | *kɔ̄kɔ̄ | |
| hoe | *káɛ́ | |
| house | *kɔ̃́ã́ | |
| hump | *kɔ̃̄nɔ̃̄ | |
| hundred | *kɛ̃̀mã̄ | (< Manding kɛ̀mɛ́) |
| initiation | *kɛ̃́nɛ̃́ | |
| load | *kɔ̃̀nɛ̃́ | |
| mat | *kálɛ́ŋ | |
| mosquito | *kã̄nã̄ | |
| negative copula | *ká | |
| penis | *kʊ̄lɪ̄ | |
| piece | *kúlù | |
| sate | *kã́ | |
| scratch | *kũ̄gã́ | |
| shell (of snail) | *kɔ̄lɛ̄ | |
| spoon | *kūlú | |
| that (conjunctive) | *ké | |
| tie | *kūlū | |
| useless | *kōlō | |
| well (water hole) | *kɔ̀lɔ̀ŋ̄ | (< Manding?) |
| certain | *kɪ̄ | |
| cut (to) | *kɛ̃́ɔ̃́ | |
| cut | *kḭ́nḭ́ | |
| hair | *kʊ́ɛ̀ŋ | |
| pepper | *kɛ̀lɪ́ | |
| reciprocal pronoun | *kɪ́ɔ̀ŋ | |
| skin | *kɔ̄lɛ́ | |
| theft | *kũ̀nã́ | |
| hand, arm | *kɔ̄ | |
| louse | *Ǹ-kàlàŋ-gbá | |
| turtle | *Ǹ-kúlè | |
| beard | *gùŋ | |
| bell | *gāɔ̄ŋ-gāɔ̄ŋ | |
| bord | *gḭ́nḭ́ | |
| chest | *gɔ̃̀nɛ̃̀ | |
| cockroach | *gōlò | |
| crocodile | *gʊ̀lɛ̀ | |
| deep | *gùlūŋ | |
| do | *gɔ̃̄ | |
| fence | *gɔ̀lɛ̀ŋ | |
| go away (to) | *gʊ́ | |
| grasshopper | *gã̀ŋgã̀ŋ | |
| hearth | *gṹnḭ̀ | |
| hill | *gɔ̃̀ŋ | |
| hoe (mattock) | *gúáŋ | |
| hyena | *gāló | |
| indigo | *gàlā | |
| maize, corn | *gòò | |
| measure (to) | *gɔ̃̄ɔ̃̀ | |
| play | *gɔ̀ɛ̄ | |
| pull (to) | *gã̄nã́ | |
| quarter (of a village) | *gɔ̃̀nɔ̃̄ | |
| rest | *gòlō | |
| search | *gḭ̀nḭ̀ | |
| sell | *gɔ̃̄ | |
| stomach, belly | *gō | |
| thorn | *gḭ̄nɛ̃́ | |
| widow | *gã̄nã̄{-ɗē} | |
| Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) | *gã̄ɛ̃̄ | |
| hole | *gùlù | |
| divide | *gùlì | |
| leopard | *gʊ̄lɛ́ | |
| peanut (Arachis hypogaea) | *gʊ̄ɛ́ | |
| sweep | *gòlò | |
| wall | *gʊ̀lɛ̄ | |
| war | *gùlì | |
| boat | *gɔ̄ŋ̀ | |
| bone | *gāŋ | |
| jackal | *gʊ̀ɛ̄ | |
| rub (to) | *gīè | |
| postposition in | *gí | |
| banana | *ƙɔ̄lɔ̄ | |
| boat | *ƙōló | |
| burn | *ƙɪ́lɪ́ | |
| cola nut | *ƙɔ̄lí | |
| die | *ƙā | |
| foot, leg | *ƙã̄nɛ̃̀ | |
| male, man | *ƙɔ̃̄nɛ̃́ | |
| pumpkin | *ƙɛ̃̄ | |
| river | *ƙũ̄ã̄ | |
| proverb | ? *ƙɔ̃̄nã̄ŋ̀ | |
| look (to) | ? *ƙɛ̄ā | |
| round | ? *ƙùlí | |
| bend | *kpḭ̄nḭ̄ | |
| all | *kpɛ́ | |
| centipede | *kpã̄ | |
| chair | *kpé | |
| cowrie | *kpɔ̃̀nɔ̃̀ | |
| dry | *kpálá | |
| fish (water dweller) | *kpɔ̄ | |
| knee | *kpíōŋ | |
| put | *kpá | |
| shin | *kpālɛ̄ŋ | |
| short | *kpētē-kpē | |
| stone | *kpōtī | |
| unripe | *kpōlēŋ | |
| cheek | ? *Ǹ-kpḭ̄nḭ́ | |
| hump | ? *Ǹ-kpɔ̄lū | |
| road | ? *kpɔ̃̄ḭ̄ŋ̀ | |
| arm | *gbɛ̄ŋ | |
| baboon (Papio cynocephalus) | *gbɔ̀ŋ̄ | |
| bachelor | *gbḭ̀ã̄ | |
| bamboo | *gbã̀ɔ̃̄ | |
| bat | *gbã̄ã̄ | |
| branch | *gbɛ̃̄ŋ̄ | |
| bucket | *gbɔ̃́ŋ́gbɔ̃́ŋ́ | |
| chase (to) | *gbḭ̀ | |
| cry | *gbāŋ | |
| drive in | *gbã̄ | |
| give (to) | *gbã̀ | |
| granary | *gbã́ | |
| heavy | *gbḭ́nḭ̀ | |
| intestine | *gbɔ̃́nɔ̃̀ | |
| long | *gbɛ̄lɛ̄ŋ | |
| night | *gbēlī | |
| pot | *gbɔ̄ | |
| roof | *gbà | |
| son | *gbɪ̄ | |
| thigh | *gbã̄nã̄ | |
| thunder (to) | *gbálàŋ | |
| tick | *gbélè | |
| tobacco | *gbòsóró | |
| wait | *gbɛ̃̄ | |
| calf (anat.) | *ƙã̄nɛ̃̀-gbɔ̄ | |
| excrement | *gbʊ̄ | |
| pull (to) | *gbìlā | |
| trace | *gbílóŋ | |
| big | *gbɛ̃̄(-tɛ̃̀) | |
| shoulder | *gbɛ̀lāŋ | |
| difficult | *gbālé | |
| shed | *gbáŋ́ | |
| squirrel | *gbèléŋ | |
| smoke | *gbã̄nḭ́ | |
| dog | *gbɛ̃̄nã̀ | |
| bug | *gbālīŋ | |
| nest | *kɔ̄lɛ̄ | |
| year | *kʊ̄ɛ̀ | |
| loom | *kɔ́lɛ̀ | |
| door | *kóŋ̄ | |
| iroko tree | ? *gʷɛ̄ɛ̄lɛ̀ | |
| stomach, belly | ? *gʷí | |
| ceiba tree (Ceiba pentandra) | ? *ƙʷã̄ɛ̃̀ | |
| stone | ? *ƙʷɛ̄lɛ̄ | |
| bear, give birth | *yāā | |
| bitter | *yɔ̃́nã̄ | |
| breast | *yɔ̃̄ŋ́ | |
| camel | *yɔ̃̀gɔ̃̀mɛ̃́ | (< Manding ɲɔ̀gɔ̀mɛ́) |
| cane rat | *yã̀nã̀ | |
| carve (to) | *yã́nã́ | |
| day | *yī | |
| dream | *yḭ̄-ɛ̃̀ | (*sleep + ?) |
| evil | *yáɔ̄ | |
| flow (to) | *yʊ̄lʊ̄ | |
| good | *yíē | |
| grass | *yã́ɛ̃́ | |
| fetish, idol | *yʊ̄ | |
| lie down | *yḭ̄-nã̀ | (*sleep + ?) |
| nose | *yṹã̄ | |
| pit | *yɛ̀lɛ̄ | |
| postposition with | *yã̄ | |
| push | *yɔ̃̄nũ̀ | |
| sit (to) | *yà(-na) | |
| sleep | *yḭ̄ | |
| sufferance | *yã́nã̄ | |
| sun | *yɛ̃́nã̄ | |
| trade | *yáō | |
| water | *yí | |
| work | *yɛ̃́nã̄ | |
| yam (Dioscorea gen.) | *yã́ɔ̃́ | |
| eye | *yũ̀ã́ | |
| oil | *yũ̄nɔ̃́ | |
| oil palm | *yɔ̄ | |
| yesterday | ? *yɔ̃́nã̄ | |
| blood | *yɔ̃̀mũ̄ | |
| break (to) | *yɛ́lɪ́ | |
| laugh (to) | *yélí | |
| sand | *yɛ̃́nɛ̃̀ | |
| ashes | *yʊ́ɓɪ́ | |
| break (to) | *yɛ́lɪ́ | |
| egg | *yɔ̃̄nã̄ | |
| end | *yḭ̄ɛ̃́ | |
| hide | *yōlí | |
| illness | *yʊ̄á | |
| see (to) | *yɪ̄ | |
| shame | *yélā | |
| three | *yààkā | |
| descend | *yɔ̄ɔ̀ | |
| tie, bind | *yɪ̀lɪ̀ | |
| tree | *yílí | |
| cat | *jã̀ũ̀mã̄ (or Ǹ-jã̀ũ̀mã̄?) | |
| chain | *jɔ̀lɔ́ | |
| fence | ? *jásá | (< Jula jása ?) |
| lion | *jàlā | |
| onion | *jàbā | |
| ? *júfà | (< Manding júfá < Arab. jawf cavity, hollow ?) | |
| thread | ? *jēsé | |
| net | ? *jɔ̀lɔ̄ | |
| affair, matter | *wḭ́ | |
| break (to) | *wɪ̄ɪ́ | |
| cry | *wūō | |
| do | *wō | |
| enter | *wɔ̄lā | |
| face | *wɛ̄lɛ̄ | |
| knife | *wálá | |
| lie down | *wɔ̄ | |
| meat, animal | *wɪ̄ | |
| monkey | *wɛ̃̀nḭ̄ | |
| negative copula | *wā | |
| oil palm grain | *wɔ̃̄nɛ̃̀ | |
| pestle | *wɛ̃̀nḭ̀ | |
| pour (to) | *wɛ̃̀ŋ̀ | |
| search | *wɛ̀ɛ̀ | |
| tail | *wã̄nḭ̄ | |
| thousand | *wágá | |
| time | *wáátí | (< Arab. waqt) |
| voice | *wʊ̄ʊ̀ | |
| speak | *wɪ́ɪ́ | |
| bone | *wɔ̃́nɛ̃́ | |
| firewood | *wɔ́ŋ́ | |
| mortar | *wɛ̃́nḭ́ | |
| wine | *wɛ̃̀ã̄ | |
| louse | *wèlì | |
| pick up | *wōlō | |
| rise (to) | *wɛ̀lɛ́ | |
| under | *wùlè | |
| worm | *wɔ̃́nɛ̃́ | |
| gray hair | *wɔ̃́nã́ | |
| hair | *wũ̄nḭ́ | |
| urine | *wũ̄ |
The Proto-South Mande reconstructions below from an earlier paper by Vydrin (2005) are provided for reference. (Note that Vydrin 2007 is the more extensive revised version.)
Consonant inventory of Proto-South Mande by Vydrin (2005):
| p | t | c ? | k | |
| b | d | j | g | gʷ ? |
| f | s | x ? | ||
| z | ||||
| ɓ/m | ɗ/n | y/ɲ | ƙ | ƙʷ |
Reconstructed Proto-South Mande lexicon (Vydrin 2005):
| English gloss | Proto-South Mande |
|---|---|
| iron | *p̰èlì |
| say | *pē |
| house | *pɛ́lɛ́ |
| vomit | *pɪ̄ì |
| wash | *p̰ólé |
| frog | *Ǹ-pōlì |
| trace | *Ǹ-píyé |
| stomach, belly | *Ǹ-pùlù |
| bowl | *páá |
| force | *fã̀gã̄ |
| light (not heavy) | *(-)fūō |
| power | *fúyè |
| dew | *(N-)fẽ́lḭ́ŋ |
| bury | *bìlìŋ |
| elephant | *bīyé |
| run | *bìlàŋ |
| eat (to) | *ɓɪ̀lɪ̀ |
| fructify | *ɓāā |
| press (to) | *ɓʊ̀lʊ́ |
| bird | *mã̀ã̀ |
| moon | *mẽ̄nɛ̃̀ŋ |
| snake | *mɛ̃̀nɛ̃̄ |
| grave | *bũ̄ŋ |
| rot | *bɔ̃́ |
| send | *bɔ̄ |
| ten | *bū |
| wake up | *bùò |
| carry | *bũ̄ |
| end | *bō |
| flower | *bũ̄ḭ́ |
| porcupine | *bùlíŋ |
| plural marker | *bɔ̀ |
| garbage | *ɓílíŋ̀ ? |
| horn | *ɓèlí ? |
| rope | *ɓàlɪ́ ? |
| shine | *ɓílí ? |
| dry season | *bɛ̀lɛ̀ ? |
| lie (untruth) | *bēlē ? |
| by (a postposition) | *bà ? |
| mush | *ɓàá ? |
| termine (flying, ephemera) | *ɓɛ̄lɛ́ŋ |
| big | *ɓɛ̀lɛ́ ? |
| friend | *ɓɛ̄ɛ̀ ? |
| viper | *ɓɛ̀lí ? |
| granary | *ɓɛ̀ŋ́ ? |
| powder | *bḭ̀ɛ̃̀ |
| grass | *bɪ́ɪ̀ |
| rain (to) | *bã̄ |
| dig (to) | *pɔ̃́ |
| go (to) | *táá |
| name | *tɔ́ |
| weave (to) | *tã́ |
| surface | *tà |
| fire | *tɛ́ |
| sneeze | *tīsé |
| dance | *tã́ ? |
| oil | *túlú ? |
| sow (to) | *tã̄ ? |
| paternal aunt | *Ń-tɛ̃́nɛ̃̀ |
| heap | *tḭ̀ŋ̀ |
| measure (to) | *dã̄ |
| one | *dʊ̄ |
| teach | *dã̀nã̄ |
| axe | *dũ̀ã̄ |
| bud | *dɔ̃̄ṹ |
| buffalo | *dùò |
| cow, cattle | *dùlī |
| hang | *dũ̄ẽ̄ |
| cough | *dɔ̃́nũ̄ ? |
| francolin | *dùō ? |
| new | *dɔ̄lɛ̀ ? |
| father | *Ń-dɛ̀ɛ̄ |
| snail | *dũ̀nḭ̄ |
| buy | *ɗɔ́ |
| leaf | *ɗɛ́ɛ́ŋ |
| rain | *ɗā |
| come | *nũ̄ |
| give (to) | *nɔ̃̄ |
| taste | *nɛ̃́nɛ̃́ |
| daughter | *ɗú |
| sky | *ɗàŋ |
| slave | *ɗùàŋ |
| child | *nɛ̃́ |
| cold | *nɛ̃́nɛ̃́ |
| life (spirit) | *nḭ́ḭ̄ |
| mouth | *ɗé |
| hunger | *ɗī |
| elder brother | *Ń-ɗòò |
| mother | *Ń-ɗēā |
| fog | *ɗólú |
| turn | *ɗìā |
| dirt | *ɗùlì |
| dirt | *tílíŋ |
| cloth | *sɔ̄ |
| five | *sɔ́ɔ́-ɗʊ́ |
| tooth | *sɔ̃̀ɛ̃́ |
| four | *yìì-sḭ̀ḭ̀yã́ |
| gold | *sã̄ŋ́ |
| grandfather | *zílè |
| road | *zīláŋ |
| wash | *zūlū |
| pierce | *zūā |
| here | *zèē |
| ant | *zūlūŋ (*Ǹ-sūlūŋ ?) |
| bean | *zɔ̃̀lɛ̃̀ (*Ǹ-sɔ̃̀lɛ̃̀ ?) |
| mosquito | *zɔ̃́ɛ̃́ (*Ǹ-sɔ̃́ɛ̃́ ?) |
| today | *zɔ̃̄ (*Ǹ-sɔ̃̄ ?) |
| pangolin | *Ǹ-zɔ̃ (*Ǹ-sɔ̃ ?) |
| copper | *Ǹ-sḭ̄nã̄ |
| tobacco | *zālā ? |
| red | *zɔ̃́nɔ̃̀ |
| bottom | *zùō |
| monitor lizard | *zʊ̄lɛ̀ɪ̀ |
| old | *zīī |
| kill | *cɛ̄ |
| middle | *cḭ̄nã̄ |
| catch | *kṹ |
| house | *kɔ̃́ã́ |
| sate | *kã́ |
| reciprocal pronoun | *kɪ́ɔ̀ŋ |
| skin | *kɔ̄lɛ́ |
| theft | *kũ̀nã́ |
| hand, arm | *kɔ̄ |
| louse | *Ǹ-kàlàŋ-gbá |
| turtle | *Ǹ-kúlè |
| with | *ká |
| deep | *gùlūŋ |
| do | *gɔ̃̄ |
| measure (to) | *gɔ̃̄ɔ̃̀ |
| pull (to) | *gã̄nã́ |
| Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) | *gɛ̃̄ɛ̃̄ |
| hole | *gùlù |
| divide | *gùlì |
| war | *gùlì |
| boat | *gɔ̄ŋ̀ |
| bone | *gāŋ |
| jackal | *gʊ̀ɛ̄ |
| rub (to) | *gīè |
| postposition in | *gí |
| die | *ƙā |
| foot, leg | *ƙã̄nɛ̃̀ |
| pumpkin | *ƙɛ̃̄ |
| fish (water dweller) | *kpɔ̄ |
| knee | *kpíōŋ |
| put | *kpá |
| cheek | *Ǹ-kpḭ̄nḭ́ ? |
| hump | *Ǹ-kpɔ̄lū ? |
| road | *kpɔ̃̄ḭ̄ŋ̀ ? |
| cry | *gbāŋ |
| pot | *gbɔ̄ |
| son | *gbɪ̄ |
| calf (anatomy) | *ƙã̄nɛ̃̀-gbɔ̄ |
| excrement | *gbʊ̄ |
| pull (to) | *gbìlā |
| trace | *gbílóŋ |
| big | *gbɛ̃̄-tɛ̃̀ |
| shoulder | *gbɛ̀lāŋ |
| difficult | *gbālé |
| shed | *gbáŋ́ |
| squirrel | *gbèléŋ |
| smoke | *gbã̄nḭ́ |
| dog | *gbɛ̃̄nã̀ |
| nest | *kɔ̄lɛ̄ |
| year | *kʊ̄ɛ̀ |
| door | *kóŋ |
| iroko tree | *gʷɛ̄ɛ̄lɛ̀ ? |
| stomach, belly | *gʷí |
| ceiba tree (Ceiba pentandra) | *ƙʷɛ̃̄ɛ̃̀ |
| stone | *ƙʷɛ̄lɛ̄ |
| breast | *yɔ̃̄ŋ́ |
| day | *yī |
| nose | *yṹɛ̃̄ |
| blood | *yɔ̃mũ̄ |
| eye | *yʊ̃̀ã́ |
| oil | *yũ̄nɔ̃́ |
| oil palm | *yɔ̄ |
| yesterday | *yɔ̃́nã̄ ? |
| laugh (to) | *yélí |
| sand | *yɛ̃́nɛ̃̀ |
| ashes | *yʊ́ɓí |
| break (to) | *yɛ́lɪ́ |
| egg | *yɔ̃̄nɛ̄ |
| end | *yḭ̄ɛ̃́ |
| hide | *yōlí |
| illness | *yʊ̄á |
| see (to) | *yɪ̄ |
| shame | *yélā |
| three | *yààkā |
| tie, bind | *yɪ̀lɪ̀ |
| tree | *yílí |
| cat | *(Ǹ-)jã̀ũ̀mã̄ |
| chain | *jɔ̀rɔ́ |
| lion | *jàlā |
| onion | *jàbā |
| break (to) | *wí |
| monkey | *wɛ̃̀nḭ̄ |
| voice | *wʊ̄ʊ̀ |
| speak | *wɪ́ɪ́ |
| bone | *wɔ̃́nɛ̃́ |
| firewood | *wɔ́ŋ́ |
| mortar | *wɛ̃́nḭ́ |
| wine | *wɛ̃̀ɛ̃̄ |
| louse | *wèlì |
| pick up | *wōlō |
| rise (to) | *wɛ̀lɛ́ |
| under | *wùlè |
| worm | *wɔ̃́nɛ̃́ |
| gray hair | *wɔ̃́nã́ |
| hair | *wũ̄nḭ́ |
| urine | *wũ̄ |